2027학년도 수능특강 영어 원문 전체

Dear students, I am Amanda Clark, the school club director, and I am writing to you about our school clubs. Over the last few semesters, there have been requests for more diverse school clubs. For this reason, the school decided to expand the number of clubs for extracurricular activities. This provides students with an opportunity to make additional clubs. Students can make any type of club based on their various interests, such as hip-hop, K-pop dancing, or coding. Therefore, I am encouraging you to submit a proposal for a new club that you would like to create. Please turn this in to my office by the end of this week. I look forward to seeing your great ideas. Best regards, Amanda Clark.

Dear Parents, At Greenwood High School, we take great pride in the cultural diversity that enriches our community. We are very pleased to share with you our special new project, a recipe book, created to celebrate the traditions and flavors of families from around the world. This unique collection features 100 recipes from 26 countries, highlighting beloved dishes passed down through generations. It offers a special chance to explore global cuisine and share meaningful moments with your children. We encourage you to try some of these recipes together over the summer. You can download this online recipe book from our school website. Food brings us together, and this project reflects the joy and unity that diversity brings to our school. Thank you, as always, for your continued support. Warm regards, Dr. Helen Brooks Principal, Greenwood High School.

Dear Professor Langford, First of all, we apologize for contacting you during the holiday season. We understand that this is a busy time, but as the revision deadline of your manuscript (December 27th) is quickly approaching, we kindly ask for your cooperation in addressing the reviewers' comments as thoroughly as possible within the limited time available. The reviewers have carefully evaluated your manuscript and provided insightful and critical feedback. To help you revise, we have summarized the key points raised by both reviewers. Please review these comments carefully and submit a revised version of your manuscript. We are confident that incorporating these suggestions will significantly improve the manuscript and provide stronger support for your main claims. We hope that the revised manuscript will satisfy the reviewers and be accepted in our journal. Thank you for your attention and cooperation. Best regards, Nora Ellison, Associate Editor.

To whom it may concern, Before I get to my main point, I'd like to mention a past experience with your store. A year ago, I ordered my wedding bouquet from you, and my husband, Nicholas, had promised me David Austin roses. However, on my wedding day, I received standard roses instead. Although I briefly considered filing a complaint about the mistake, I chose to focus on enjoying my special day. Yesterday, to celebrate our one-year wedding anniversary, my husband ordered David Austin roses from your store again. However, the flowers I received today were lifeless, spotted, and browning upon arrival. This time, I believe it's only fair to ask you to take action to resolve this matter. I am not asking for compensation for the flowers from a year ago, but I do expect a refund for this order. To resolve this issue, I would appreciate a full refund. I look forward to your response. Sincerely, Cheryl.

Dear Mr. Johnson, Have you settled into your new job by now, and do you still feel as enthusiastic about it as you did at the beginning? Of course, any job has its tiresome tasks, but all in all, from what you told us, it sounds like a good match for you. We're writing to ask when we can expect repayment of the $1,500 loan for your car. We were glad to help you with the purchase of your car so that you'd have transportation back and forth to your new job. You agreed to pay all, or at least half, of the loan by June. If you have decided that you cannot repay the total $1,500 at once, we understand. But we do need to receive at least half that amount within the next 2 or 3 weeks. We hope you are satisfied with the car you chose. We, too, thought it was a good buy. Please let us know how things are going. Sincerely, Joseph Brown Financial Advisor.

"Where could it be?" Sophie asked herself. It had been more than ten years since she had last visited the area where she had grown up. The village had changed a lot over time. Uncertain, she awkwardly looked around at her surroundings. She walked the narrow streets of the village, unsure about which way to go. Suddenly, Sophie saw a familiar sight. "Yes, this must be it," she thought. In front of her was a wall with flowers painted on it. Although the colors were now faded, the familiar shapes on the wall were the same ones she had painted with her father as a child. Sophie nodded, smiled brightly, and walked toward the gate. At last, she had finally found the house she had grown up in.

It was the day I had been preparing for. I drove for an hour and a half to apply for a visa. My heart was racing, but I felt ready. That same day, I helped three people who didn't know English by translating for the immigration officer. Two of them were lucky to get their visas. Then I heard my name called. Believing things were going smoothly, I made my way to the counter. I showed my documents and property papers to prove that I would return home after visiting my children. Unfortunately, the officer, who had smiled when I was helping her, suddenly turned serious. She ignored my papers and put a red stamp on my application. I didn't have a chance to say a word. I felt as if a heavy rock was pressing down on my mind. I didn't expect to hear her words of rejection. I felt dizzy, and my eyes were full of tears. I couldn't see anything at that moment.

After a few nights, we ventured out on a hike to 16,000 feet. The group members were all experienced, so I couldn't understand why they were climbing so slowly what I thought was a ridiculous pace. Having trained hard for this, I was in the best shape of my life. And, being the rookie, I wanted to prove myself to the group. Why not show off my superior conditioning? So up front I went. Then, as we approached 16,000 feet, I suddenly began to feel dizzy. Not long after, I was staggering. The group had to take my pack. In a matter of minutes, I became a basket case, needing assistance just to walk. On the way down to the hut, I could barely keep in a straight line because of the nausea, headache, and dizziness. Now all I felt was guilt for becoming a burden to the group. I wished I hadn't pushed myself so hard.

Francis Pohan sat at the organ in his Borneo home, a smile on his face as the hymn he had practiced for weeks flowed smoothly under his fingers. The melody blended with the soft sounds of the jungle, filling him with happiness. The organ, his most precious possession, was a source of comfort and joy, especially in these uncertain times. But his peace was interrupted by the distant roar of engines breaking the calm. Soldiers appeared on the jungle road, their boots loud on the dirt as they approached, weapons hanging loosely over their shoulders. Francis' heart raced; it was wartime, and soldiers often took what they wanted. Whispering urgently to his sister, Ellen, he led her to hide behind a tall tree, its thick trunk shielding them. Peeking out, Francis stepped outside carefully and looked at the soldiers walking toward their home. Their loud voices and heavy footsteps filled the quiet jungle. His mind raced with prayers, hoping they would remain unseen.

Vera couldn't wait for her car to get fixed, but that was going to require longer than initially expected. Unfortunately, that meant relying on the bus for her commute. To add to the cruel irony, it hadn't stopped raining for the past three days. It was already past 7 PM when she stepped off the bus, cold and soaked to the bone, having left her umbrella at the gym. Her place was just one block down the street, but it felt like ten miles in this weather. Her legs moved on their own, and suddenly, the Cups & Blossoms' bell was ringing above her head. The warm, floral scent wrapped around her like a blanket, but it was another kind of welcome that surprised her a smile from the caf챕 owner, soft and unassuming. She was also polite enough not to ask why Vera looked so tired, which was appreciated. Vera now seemed to realize what she had truly needed. Just a friendly face to ease the weight she carried.

Digital platforms have made a lot of work less sticky. As work becomes ever more modularised, commoditised and standardised, and as markets for digital work are created, ties between service work and particular places can be disconnected. While the business process of outsourcing that emerged in the 1990s allowed large companies to take advantage of a 'global reserve army' by moving their call centres to cheap and distant labour markets, cloudwork changes the volume and granularity at which geographically non-proximate work can take place. A small business in New York can hire a freelance transcriber in Nairobi one day and New Delhi the next. No offices or factories need to be built, no local regulations are observed, and in most cases no local taxes are paid. The switch in the production network of work happens by simply sending some emails or clicking some buttons on a digital work platform. And, in this way, the employer leaves behind no material traces in the places where it was once an employer.

Even outdoors, although climate (including temperature) is usually regarded as beyond the control of man, localized temperature control is sometimes effective on a microclimate scale. Vancouver, Canada, is a few miles north of the 49th parallel about 60 miles farther north than Minot, North Dakota, with its legendary harsh winter temperatures. But constant foehn winds off the Pacific Ocean make Vancouver winters mild and wet, although sunshine is scant. When I had a garden there in the late 1940s, a neighbor used to say that I "cheated God" to bring in my lettuce and tomatoes earlier than anyone else. The bed in which the vegetables grew was banked toward the south at approximately 50 degrees, and the area between the plants was covered with flat stones, gathered from the nearby beach to maximize soil heating from the weak late winter early spring sun.

Energy can always be injected into an organization to motivate people to do things. Bonuses, promotions, other carrots, and even a few sticks can get people to work harder, for sure, but the gains are, like all manipulations, short-term. Over time, such tactics cost more money and increase stress for employee and employer alike, and eventually will become the main reason people show up for work every day. That's not loyalty. That's the employee version of repeat business. Loyalty among employees is when they turn down more money or benefits to continue working at the same company. Loyalty to a company trumps pay and benefits. And unless you're an astronaut, it's not the work we do that inspires us either. It's the cause that we come to work for. We don't want to come to work to build a wall; we want to come to work to build a cathedral.

In the early 1960s the great American writer James Baldwin wrote: "People are trapped in history, and history is trapped in them." He was speaking to race when he penned those words. But the statement is equally true if the word "people" is replaced with "all of life on Earth, present and past," for each strand of DNA, in each of our cells, is an ancient record of biological history, written in simple code and passed down from generation to generation. One could say that DNA is nothing but history, one with a physical manifestation that was slowly blended and accumulated over countless eons by the most pitiless of all phenomena natural selection. DNA is a history that is inside us and yet one that is our master as well, the blueprint for our bodies, and dictator of what we will pass on to our children, gifts that can be blessings or deadly time bombs. We are indeed trapped in this particular vehicle of history as much as it is trapped in us.

People may not think critically for a variety of reasons, such as laziness and inability, but fear is a big one. Why is that? People don't want to think not just because it's hard, but also because they're afraid it will make them question their long-held beliefs. Your students most likely do want to think about things that can be very controversial, like politics, ethics, and philosophy. But probe even deeper. Once we start thinking deeply, long-held assumptions are challenged. Thought makes us worry that we'll lose our balance and have to look at the world in a different way. We worry about thinking because we care about what we and other people think. Even the most far-fetched ideas have an effect on the world. Non-Euclidean geometry and symbolic logic are about as abstract as thinking can get but you can't understand Einsteinian gravity without the first and run computers without the second. Thinking is important to us, to others, and to the world we live in. This is one reason why we are so afraid of it: it shakes us to the core.

A sport ecosystem exists based on the type and rate of coopetition existing. Coopetition is defined as the simultaneous pursuit of cooperation and competition among firms to leverage strategically important resources for superior value creation purposes. It is a useful way to understand the dynamic nature of sport businesses which need to collaborate for resource efficiency purposes but potentially compete with each other. This special relationship should be managed properly due to trust and confidence issues being paramount. It can be challenging to be collaborative and competitive in sport as they involve different forms of behaviour. This means a careful balancing act may be required in terms of the amount of emphasis placed on each activity. Often sport managers will try to be more competitive due to performance reasons and less collaborative. By necessity they may need to share information but do so in a cautious manner. This means it might be better to have plans in place about how to pursue both simultaneously. This will ensure one is not neglected at the expense of the other.

There's a saying that "you can't eat information." That may be so, but the food we eat today is the fruit of thousands of years of increasingly high-quality information the knowledge of how to farm what seeds, what tools and how to use them, what times of year, what irrigation, what sequence of one crop after another on the same land. What we eat is solar energy, filtered, concentrated, and distilled through the lens of human knowledge. The energy the Earth receives from the sun each year has remained more or less constant through all of human civilization. What's allowed us to flourish is our increasingly sophisticated knowledge of how to capture an ever-growing but still tiny fraction of that energy in a form that can fuel our bodies. Every step in the advancement of our knowledge has brought with it an increase in the amount of energy we can tap into.

Increased community engagement by professional journalists, on their own, will not solve the problem of making the news more relevant to everyone because traditional news organizations already have abandoned many communities, leaving behind news deserts. In those places, citizens must take up the responsibility for discovering information, holding the powerful accountable, and telling the news for themselves and their neighbors. The democratization of information through the disruptions caused by computers and the internet allows citizens to retake control of local news in ways that never have existed before, and it calls them to take greater care in the gathering and dissemination of what they discover or think they know. Journalism, perhaps like never before, belongs to the people rather than to professional journalists, wealthy publishers, or even corporate shareholders. The same technology that has shifted the balance of power toward the people gives them the tools to act as broadcasters and publishers of information essential to their immediate community and, more critically, to serve as gatekeepers to information for other people around them.

It is a myth that all ideas are equally valid, even those with little or no objective proof. The existence of science is the commitment to objective truth. After all, science is true: fire is hot, the wheel is efficient, birds and planes can fly, we've landed on a comet and traveled to the Moon, antibiotics treat illness, and immunizations keep us from getting sick. These accomplishments are made possible by objective truths. A plausible theory can, and frequently does, push science forward. However, an intuition must be followed with testing that confirms or disproves its veracity. If a theory is disproved, one should consider it as a reason to reject or alter the hypothesis, not a justification to just keep firmly holding to the hypothesis because you are instinctively wedded to it. Critical thinking is an absolute must and we must respect evidence. It's the only reason for anyone to trust anything about reality. Without testing and evidence, intuition is useful, but it is never the ultimate word.

If you suffer from social angst, awkwardness, or dread, know that this is a perfectly normal response. No matter what it looks like, a lot of people are dealing with internal anxiety in social situations. But it is actually possible to build your social muscle and use it to boost your connections and your anxiety is giving you clues to what icebreakers and lifelines other people might be grateful for you to extend. Truly listen to what your anxiety is signaling to you about where you feel uncertain or insecure, and practice empathy by offering a hand to others who might be in the same boat. Remember that flipping anxiety into compassion is something inherent in you it is, in fact, what your anxiety was designed to do for you. Together, compassion and empathy can buffer against bad anxiety. You can use your anxiety to be more outward-facing. The outcome? The spread of compassion for your fellow human beings, other species, and the planet!

The study of literature has repeatedly failed to recognize the influence of modern musical lyricists and their contributions to the evolution of language. Unlike Shakespeare, who has been studied and celebrated for his development of the English language, particularly in vocabulary and grammatical structure, modern songwriters have experienced restraints on the acknowledgement of their contributions and largely been ignored. Over the past century, we have witnessed an explosion of incredible literary works by these artists, who, through their music, have used linguistic manipulation and storytelling to enrich our language and literature. Producing lyrics of distinct and complex imagery, songwriters have had an incredible literary impact on our language. Their remarkable works, including influences on modern language development, must be recognized in the field of modern literature.

Many crises today, such as the Great Recession, are simply too big and too overwhelming for you to completely comprehend, much less control. Crises of this ilk are precisely the kind that can easily engulf you with destructive reactions that interfere with your ability to overcome them. Focusing on these oversized crises will exacerbate the natural psychological, emotional, and physical reactions you are going to experience. With these sorts of crises, your best chance is to identify those aspects that are within your control. Then, you can break down the bigger crisis into smaller, more manageable problems toward which you can direct your energy and find solutions. For example, think back to the Great Recession. Although you probably didn't have the ability to influence economic policy, you were able to revisit the distribution of your investments and choose to create a more diverse portfolio.

Consumer surveys indicate that the majority of Americans 91% believe they have some control over their health, and 72% believe that food and nutrition play the greatest role. However, 75% of consumers rely on media outlets including the Internet as their major sources of health and nutrition information, and only half use medical sources. A Google search for "nutrition listservs" yielded over 100,000 sites, but it is likely that many of these writings are not reviewed by nutrition experts. Internet sites marketing herbs, drugs, and health devices are not monitored by government regulatory agencies and often contain misleading information. Reputable food companies provide helpful facts about the nutrient content of their products, but commercial sites devoted to sales often post misleading health claims. Internet sites maintained by government agencies, universities, state extension services, and medical facilities provide evidence-based information and should be the first source for public information on foods, nutrition, and health.

My business partner Charles and I embraced the servant leader's way of doing things. In other words, nothing was beneath us. We led by example and did the work. When any new salesman came into the store, he would look around, notice Charles polishing some corner of the floor and me covered in flour, and assume the decision-maker was not present. He'd then hand off whatever he was selling to me and say, "Can you give this to the owner?" Now, if Charles and I had remained in the bakery for too long, we wouldn't have been able to grow and scale, so I'm not saying you should be sweeping the floors forever. It's more about modeling what's important. If cleanliness and details are important, be sure you aren't above doing the work and pitching in. Come into your workspace and ask how you can help. If it's clear your team is in the weeds, jump in without asking.

Training and competition naturally speed the breath, which activates the sympathetic nervous system. In performance, this is acceptable because an athlete wants to produce adrenaline and compete and train in an aroused state. However, it is equally important for an athlete to learn how to mentally and physically downshift from the acute sympathetic activity experienced in sport, and outside of performance focus their attention on slow breathing to reduce the sympathetic activity and resolve the fight-or-flight state. In the Feinstein Institutes study, participants were able to use the pace of their breathing to activate specific regions of the brain. In a performance realm, this means athletes can use breathing pace to manage their state of arousal. During training and competition, the breathing rate increases with the introduction of adrenaline, and athletes must be able to control this to be able to adapt and recover. One way is to practice slower breathing protocols outside of training and competition.

Emphasizing speed over frequency can make sense in contexts where everyone is expected to plan around the timetable, including peak-only commute services and very long trips with low demand. In all other contexts, though, it seems to be a common motorist's error. Roads are there all the time, so their speed is the most important fact that distinguishes them. But transit is only there if it's coming soon. If you have a car, you can use a road whenever you want and experience its speed. But transit has to exist when you need it (span), and it needs to be coming soon (frequency). Otherwise, waiting time will wipe out any time savings from a faster service. Unless you're comfortable planning your life around a particular scheduled trip, speed is worthless without frequency, so a transit map that screams about speed and whispers about frequency may simply be planting confusion.

In the United States, the practice of permitting aliens to vote could be seen as compatible with the idea of an exclusionary citizenship, but that is a hard balance to maintain. If the vote, of all rights, is in the hands of noncitizens, why should they not count as citizens, and the entire distinction between resident alien and citizen be abandoned? Indeed, something like this thought probably lay behind the disappearance of alien voting: with universal adult citizen suffrage after 1920, the only way to maintain an exclusionary kind of citizenship was to restrict the vote to citizens and not residents. But no theory of "active" democracy can countenance this distinction: the laws concerning our common life must be made by all those who are taking part in it, and residence is the only convincing test of whether someone is taking part as is understood almost universally when it comes to questions of which citizens should have a voice in local government.

When people are asked what any painting hanging on a gallery wall means, no matter how strange it might appear, as is the case with most abstract-expressionist paintings, they tend to find meaning in it because it is located in a gallery. Consider a soda can found thrown away on a city street. If we were to come across this item on the street, we would no doubt view it as a piece of garbage or rubbish. But if we saw the very same object on a pedestal, displayed in an art gallery, signed by some artist, and given a title such as "Waste," then we would interpret its meaning in a vastly different way. We would, in fact, be inclined to interpret it as an artistic form, descrying a throw-away or materialistic society. Clearly, the can's location on a sidewalk versus its display on a pedestal in an art gallery will influence how we will interpret it.

The reliance on the computer as a model for the operations of the human mind may well prove to be as limited as an earlier fascination with behaviorism. Psychologists have already begun to recognize the flaws of the mind-as-computer metaphor. Some have turned to cultural anthropology as a way of understanding the factors outside any particular individual's brain that help the individual make sense out of the world. Others, such as Jerome Bruner, one of the founders of cognitive psychology find that the computer analogy carries with it an unfortunate shift "from the construction of meaning to the processing of information." Bruner's reflections on the limits of the machine model lead him back to a humanistic emphasis on narrative and story-telling as essential ingredients in understanding human cognition, a fascinating intellectual journey that reveals both the power and the limits of computers as guides to the way we think.

In the escape that reading literature provides through vicarious identification and comparison with other lives, places, and times, we activate our imagination, that uniquely human ability to explore an alternative set of ideas and experiences that are outside our present environment and that may not even be real. As opposed to perception that receives and processes information from the outside world light, sound, shape and finds meaning in it sunset, a symphony, a house in imagination, the process is reversed. Translating the words we read into what they signify, we populate an inner world in which imagery is created from the memory. For example, we read "house" and picture a representation of a house from memory. It is our imagination, the complex interweaving of perception and memory that literature activates, releasing a latent creativity that pleases. The writer may provide the blueprint, but the reader builds literature's many rooms, and like any satisfying occupation, literature gratifies our imaginative and creative abilities.

The economic benefit of culturtainment makes it attractive to politicians and policy makers alike. A potential increase in inbound visitor numbers coupled with their demand for related goods and services (travel, accommodation, retail) is an incentive for those within governments and authorities to work with cultural groups in order to develop celebrations and commemorations into larger and more high-profile events. However, such commercialization risks culturtainment becoming homogeneous and losing its original 'message' that could lead to a dilution of audiences. This could also lead to smaller non-commercial independent events being set up that would only serve to divide audiences further. This is something that planners and stakeholders will need to balance against potential financial gain. Changing political, social and religious landscapes will lead to the emergence of new cultures, and with them new culturtainment experiences. Overall this is a healthy growth sector of the entertainment industry, but one that by its very nature is delicate in the face of exploitation.

You've probably heard that it takes about ten thousand hours of practice to become an expert in anything a musical instrument, a sport, chess, cooking, or a foreign language. The research by K. Anders Ericsson on this topic has been written about many times, and it was made even more famous when Malcolm Gladwell described it in his bestselling book Outliers. However, recently, a cohort of researchers reexamined the studies and research behind the 10K figure and said, quite dramatically, that the ten-thousand-hour rule was utter nonsense. Specifically, there is nothing particularly special about ten thousand hours, and while practice is clearly important to boost performance, other factors may play an even more important role. What are those other factors that get us to expert levels of performance? Pure innate talent? Intelligence? Luck of the draw? Perseverance? Hard work? Yes, it's all of that... and more. Age, experience, and environment all play a role. In other words, there's no one certain factor that can predict or ensure mastery or optimal performance of anything.

In the old Soviet Union, a famous U.S. beverage company wanted to set up a bottling plant and distribution network. The prevailing ideology in the old Soviet Union at the time stressed the importance of the group over the individual and the need to develop industrial capacity at the expense of consumer goods. Soft drinks hardly seemed to fit the country's ideological priorities. Indeed, one government official dismissed the product as a "useless drink." Eventually, the two sides struck a deal, but not on the basis that the drink would quench the local population's thirst. Instead, the U.S. negotiators justified the project on the grounds that it would contribute to the country's industrial development. They restructured the project to include a heavy training component for local workers and managers, as well as a farm that would grow certain of the drink's ingredients. In addition, the company promised to make efforts to persuade other American companies to consider investments in the country.

In 2012, the Yale School of Architecture held a symposium called "Is Drawing Dead?" The bold title reflects a growing sense that the architect's freehand sketch is being displaced by the computer. The transition from sketchpad to screen entails, many architects believe, a loss of creativity, of adventurousness. Thanks to the precision and apparent completeness of screen renderings, a designer working at a computer has a tendency to lock in, visually and cognitively, on a design at an early stage. He bypasses much of the reflective and exploratory playfulness that springs from the uncertainty and ambiguity of sketching. Researchers term this phenomenon "premature fixation" and trace its cause to "the disincentive for design changes once a large amount of detail and interconnectedness is built too quickly into a CAD (Computer-Aided Design) model." The designer at the computer also tends to emphasize formal experimentation at the expense of expressiveness. By weakening an architect's "personal, emotional connection with the work," a renowned American architect and designer Michael Graves argues, CAD software produces designs that, "while complex and interesting in their own way," often "lack the emotional content of a design derived from hand."

Limited animation is a process of making animated cartoons that does not follow a "realistic" approach. The short cartoons and feature films of Walt Disney from the 1930s and 1940s are widely acclaimed for depicting animated simulations of reality, with exquisite detail in every frame. However, this style of animation is very time-consuming and expensive. "Limited" animation creates an image that uses abstract art, symbolism, and limited movement to create the same effect, but at a much lower production cost. This style of animation depends more upon suspension of disbelief to tell a story; the story exists more in the viewer's imagination. It also encourages the animators to indulge in artistic styles that are not necessarily bound to the limits of the real world. The result is a new artistic style that could not have developed if animation was solely devoted to producing simulations of reality. Without limited animation, such ground-breaking films as Yellow Submarine, Chuck Jones' The Dot and the Line, and many others could never have been produced.

We are exceptionally smart, and this helps us adapt to a wide range of environments. But we are not nearly smart enough as individuals to solve the adaptive problems that confronted modern humans as they spread across the globe. The package of tools, foraging techniques, ecological knowledge, and social arrangements used by any group of foragers is far too complex for any individual to create. We are able to learn all the things we need to know in each of the many different environments in which we live only because we acquire information from others. We are much better at learning from others than other species are, and we are motivated to learn from others even when we do not understand why our models are doing what they are doing. This psychology allows human populations to accumulate pools of adaptive information that greatly exceed the inventive capacities of individuals.

Here's an application of metaphors to research papers: Below-grade-level readers in my urban middle school have a great deal of difficulty doing research. Their answer when assigned to do "a report" is to come to the media center and copy verbatim everything in the encyclopedia article or whatever source they have located, be it Internet, print, or whatever. To try to get the students to understand why it isn't necessary to copy everything in the articles, I use a comparison to a supermarket. I ask them if everything in the supermarket is useful, and we discuss this, with the usual conclusion being that it is, but we don't buy everything all the time. Then I ask them why they don't buy everything each time they go and how they determine what to buy when they go with their parents. Someone usually mentions that they have a list. From that point on, I lead a discussion about how whatever their teachers have asked for is their "shopping list" for their research, and they should just read for that information and write it down in note format. It sometimes helps them to understand that copying everything is a wasteful endeavor.

Reformist approaches assume that markets could operate in more equitable and environmentally reasonable ways, and that a market is the most efficient option available. Yet the logic of market efficiencies generally rotates on purely monetary calculations, effectively reasoning in a hall of mirrors and marginalising real social and environmental values. Familiar examples are conventional food retailers, such as supermarkets, which purchase fruit and vegetables as cheaply as possible. Inexpensive produce might be grown using soil- and water-damaging fertilisers, by poorly paid illegal migrant workers, and transported long distances using more cheap labour and environmentally damaging practices. However, organic farmers can only follow ecologically sound practices and make sure they pay their workers fair wages if the food costs more, meaning supply for an elite demand. By its very nature, one never manages to escape the conundrums that production for trade entails. Real social and environmental values involved in caring for people and Earth highlight the inequities and damage of market-oriented activities.

There is no scientific basis for the term "race". Most humans are genetically very similar and there is so little variation amongst us that it is not possible to draw neat boundaries around people and label them as a distinct racial group. Race is an example of social construction, where social processes create something that essentially does not exist but takes on real force in people's lives. Sociologists prefer to call these processes "racialization". Historical evidence that race has always been an issue is hard to find. For example, in ancient Rome there were various leading figures, such as Emperor Septimius Severus (ruled C.E. 193-211), who were black. Little is said of their skin colour in accounts written at the time, because the ancient Romans did not think it made any difference. They thought more in terms of judging people as being civilized or a barbarian.

Many factors contribute to Americans' growing waistlines, but one observation in particular cannot be overlooked: The incidence of obesity has increased in parallel with increasing portion sizes. Consider this: Adults today consume an average of 300 more calories per day than they did in the year 1985. Is this just a coincidence, or do larger portion sizes have something to do with it? In almost every eating situation, we are now confronted by huge portions, which are perceived as "normal" or "a great value." Americans have created the perception that large portion sizes are appropriate, creating an environment of portion distortion. We find portion distortions in restaurants, where the jumbo-sized portions are consistently 250 percent larger than the regular portions. We even find portion distortions in our homes, where the sizes of our bowls and glasses have steadily increased and where the surface area of the average dinner plate has increased 36 percent since 1960. Research shows that people unintentionally consume more calories when offered larger portions. Consuming larger portion sizes can contribute to positive energy balance, which, over time, leads to weight gain and ultimately can result in obesity.

Situational ethics is an ethical theory that takes into account the context of a situation or an act when judging whether it is ethical. Supporters of this theory willingly permit casting aside absolute moral standards. In the absence of a universal standard or law, what matters is the outcome or consequences; so, the end justifies the means. Possibly the following contrasting realities can help illustrate the application of situational ethics. In a pickup game of basketball played among friends, everyone is expected to call his or her own fouls or acknowledge knocking the ball out-of-bounds. Caring about one's friends and maybe getting to keep playing with the group leads to these actions. But, once an organized game is played with officials, most athletes will not admit to the same fouls or violations as the end goal of winning is more important than expressing concern for competitors. Situational ethics has been extended by many athletes and coaches to mean trying to get away with as many actions on the field or court as possible to gain competitive advantages.

Moral outrage is the psychological tool that motivates people to punish wrongdoers, even at cost or risk to themselves. It is a "commitment device," something that commits people to punishment, even though trying to punish someone can be dangerous. When we witness unjust harm, whether someone committing interpersonal violence or obvious cheating, we have an embodied physical reaction. We get angry, our blood pressure spikes, our heart beats faster; we thirst for retribution. Outrage leads us to ignore the irrationality of risking our own safety to punish someone. In any single situation, there is rarely an immediate personal benefit for meting out punishment, and often there is real risk, because the person you are serving justice against could lash out at you or get revenge in the future. But the powerful feeling of outrage leads us to momentarily forget this unfavorable evaluation and get involved in a situation we would be better off avoiding, and science reveals how this feeling and forgetting is essential for maintaining a cooperative society.

Why do humans have the counterproductive instinct to favor natural products in the absence of knowledge of their benefits or their potential for harm? The answer likely lies in our genes. Our species, through most of its evolutionary history, relied heavily upon experience to judge whether ingestion of something was beneficial (i.e., nutritional or medicinal) versus whether it was dangerous (i.e., poisonous). We evolved the instinct to avoid plants that made us sick and favored those that made us well. Treating unknowns with great caution provided a terrific survival advantage. Today, we trust that products of nature are safe to consume. But those pills coming off a pharmaceutical production line look nothing like what our instincts tell us is safe to eat. The ingredients remind us of a high school chemistry lab. Yet we are expected to consume them. Thus, we treat them with caution just as our distant ancestors regarded a new plant. When in need of a remedy, we are drawn to derivatives of our food, plant products, which we perceive to be safe, and not artificial products of science.

Dietary supplements are not drugs. A drug is intended to diagnose, cure, mitigate, treat, or prevent disease. Before marketing, drugs must undergo extensive studies of effectiveness, safety, interactions with other substances, and dosing. The FDA gives formal premarket approval to a drug and monitors its safety after the drug is on the market. If a drug is subsequently shown to be dangerous, the FDA can act quickly to have it removed from the market. None of this is true for dietary supplements. The current law gives the FDA only limited authority over supplements, making it difficult for the government to remove unsafe supplements from the marketplace. The FDA does not evaluate the safety and effectiveness of supplements before they hit the marketplace. There are some legislators in Congress who want to improve the law by requiring supplement makers to put safer products on the shelves and label products more clearly. The objective is to ensure that consumers can tell the difference between dietary supplements that are safe and those that have potentially serious side effects or drug interactions.

Literature is not a disposable carrier of nuggets of information. Literature (as opposed to everyday reading) invites us back again and again to re-experience what it offers and to reassess its meanings. Literature continues to communicate meaning and significance over time, and, most remarkably, to shift its meaning based on our perspective. We have all had the experience of taking up a classic work of literature after several years and finding in it details and significance we missed the first (or fifth) time through. What has changed is not the work of literature exactly but our experiences that are now reflected in the text. One's perception of Shakespeare's grand drama on aging under existential threat, King Lear, is a different experience read in one's twenties than it is in one's seventies. This is true because reading literature, as opposed to everyday reading, requires full reader participation, activating not just our informational processing skills but our analysis, imagination, and emotions. These change over time in every person, and those changes explain how works of literature are more dynamic than everyday reading.

The early grain trade firms were active in both surplus-producing and food deficit regions, and these firms made it their business to know the state of supply and demand in both. Because this information was the key to their profitability, these firms worked in relative secrecy, frequently built on family ties, trust, and loyalty. In addition, these firms were able to benefit from the rise of commodity exchanges and commodities futures markets that emerged in the mid-1800s. Agricultural markets are naturally unstable, due to changes in harvest size that result from variable weather patterns and other factors. Locking-in prices by buying and selling grain for future delivery helped these firms to minimize such risks. It made sense for the grain trading companies to manage their risks within a single firm that was operating in more than one country, rather than operating as independent national companies trading with each other. Their access to information in multiple markets enabled them to easily cover the risks associated with agricultural commodity trade.

In the Physics, Aristotle asks whether nature acts for the sake of something. He offers an account of rain as water that rises when heated by the Sun, then cools, condenses, and falls to Earth, but is not particularly concerned with explaining rain as such. Rather, he addresses a more general question: how to account for natural objects, events, and processes that appear with regularity. He queries whether the sharpness of front teeth and the bluntness of molars is coincidental and rejects that possibility, because this arrangement occurs with regularity and that regularity is linked to purposefulness. The sharpness of front teeth allows them to tear while the bluntness of those in the back enables them to crush food; both are useful for eating. In Aristotle's view, all natural things happen in a given way and occur for the sake of something; that is the final cause.

AI is a prolific idea generator. Human brainstorming groups tend to focus on the quality of creative ideas and almost immediately lean into variations of first suggestions, but good ideas are more likely when groups focus first on quantity. As Linus Pauling put it, _he best way to have a good idea is to have lots of ideas. Psychologist Dean Keith Simonton called this the _qual odds rule arguing that creative success is correlated to the total number of works created. Many studies have confirmed that creative quality comes from quantity of ideas (what Bob Sutton at a design and innovation consulting company called _dea ratio), and one Stanford study pegged the number of ideas that distinguish a successful product from a failure at more than two thousand. This is why design thinking and innovation are so focused on the processes (what Utley and Klebahn call _dea flow) of creating possibilities without judgment.

Becoming aware of our internal sensations can help us handle our own emotions. Perhaps more surprisingly, the body's interoceptive faculty can also bring us into closer contact with other people's emotions. That's because the brain, on its own, has no direct access to the contents of other people's minds, no way to feel what others are feeling. Interpreting others' spoken words and facial expressions may yield only a coolly abstract sense of the emotions that stir within. The body acts as a critical conduit, supplying the brain with the visceral information it lacks. It does so in this way: When interacting with other people, we subtly and unconsciously mimic their facial expressions, gestures, posture, and vocal pitch. Then, via the interoception of our own bodies' signals, we perceive what the other person is feeling because we feel it in ourselves. We bring other people's feelings onboard, and the body is the bridge. In an act similar to taking a bite off our partner's plate, or borrowing an earbud to hear the song our friend is listening to, we are sampling their emotions.

The strongest criticisms of the overextension of technology involve claims of dehumanization, and these arguments are not new. Canadian philosopher of the electronic age, Marshall McLuhan was primarily a techno-utopian, but he was also a critical thinker, who cautioned decades ago against too much human extension into technology. McLuhan famously claimed that every media extension of man is an amputation. For example, once we have a car, we don't walk to the shops any more; once we have a computer hard-drive, we don't have to remember things; and now that we have personal GPS (Global Positioning System) on our cell phones, no one can find their way about without it. Based on McLuhan's philosophy, we are becoming post-literate because we rely on screens full of pictures, rather than print media, such as books. It is thus possible that extensions of human faculties, through techno- and bio-enhancement, will bring about arrested development in the natural evolution of higher human faculties.

Giving clients sufficient opportunity to react to your designs while in progress is a key to professional success. Similarly, involving prospective building users as well as clients is even more valuable in the long run. Say your client is a large corporation, such as a health care provider. While the hospital administration may serve as your client, no doubt the perspectives of administration personnel will differ significantly from those of doctors, interns, residents, nurses, and other medical staff who use the building regularly. In addition, the experiences of patients and visitors who use the building irregularly, often as a result of life-threatening emergencies, are altogether different as well. Understanding how each type of user experiences the current medical environment as well as how each reacts to your prospective designs inevitably produces a better building. People are likely to be more satisfied with a new building or addition if they have been consulted in the design process. For a large institution, this can translate into increased productivity on the job, reduced absenteeism, less turnover, and lower costs.

Sharing meanings and experiences is not a simple, automatic process: whenever two or more people observe or participate in the same ongoing event they experience it from different perspectives, with different histories, with different background knowledge. These differences are most glaring when the individuals involved include an infant or very young child and an adult, although an adult arranging an event for an infant may find it difficult to keep these differences in mind. When giving a bath, for example, a parent whose experience with water play has been fun, whose knowledge about the source of the water and its disposition provides confidence, and whose body control ensures that the baby is safely held and not in danger, expects the infant to enjoy splashing water. Yet the baby may make it clear (perhaps by terrified crying) that her perspective is quite different from that of the adult. The two share an experience, but not a meaning.

A detailed anthropological study of daily scientific practice in the Salk Institute laboratory in La Jolla, California shows how difficult it is to assign credit and dates. Bruno Latour describes how scientists arrived at the elucidation of TRF (thyrotropin-releasing factor), a hormone that is secreted by the brain. He says that his observations led him to _he conviction that a body of practices widely regarded by outsiders as well organized, logical, and coherent, in fact consists of a disordered array of observations with which scientists struggle to produce order. The final consensus formulation of TRF (i.e., when it became a scientific _act) emerged some time between January 1968 and January 1970. Half of the Nobel Prize in Medicine for 1977 for this discovery was shared between the Salk group and another competing group in New Orleans (the other half went to Rosalind Yalow for the techniques she developed that were used in these studies), but each of these two competing groups strongly felt that they deserved sole credit and that the other did not deserve even a share of the award.

The idea of music direction, in the sense of someone shaping and leading a musical performance, goes back to the beginnings of music. Even the gamelans of ancient Indonesia had leaders who would signal to the group changes of meter and tempo, beginnings and endings, and transitions from piece to piece. Yet listening audiences are rarely aware of any musical leadership, and for good aesthetic reason. They need not be aware to fulfill their experience; indeed, the unnecessarily conspicuous presence of a musical leader will detract from it. An audience is better off, for the most part, taking in the whole of a stage work rather than being party to the techniques that go into realizing it. This is not to say that when an orchestra plays alone the audience members' eyes are not fixed on the conductor for the majority of the time; they probably are. When music is accompanying something happening on stage, however, all eyes turn to the stage, and so do everyone's ears, too (including the music director's).

The importance of what a reader brings to the page is highlighted in a study discussed by Hirsch in *The Knowledge Deficit*. This study consisted of two groups of students who were asked to read a passage about baseball. The first group was made up of strong readers who knew little about baseball. The second group was composed of struggling readers who were knowledgeable about baseball. After reading the passage, students in each group had their comprehension tested. Guess which group scored higher? The struggling readers. Having strong reading skills was not enough for the students who came to the page with a knowledge deficit about the topic. Though the second group of readers were not strong readers, their prior knowledge enabled them to outscore readers with far better abilities. Prior knowledge, or, in the case of the good readers, the lack of prior knowledge, was the x-factor.

There are few of us who don't at least want to make time for self-care activities such as exercise, hobbies, or relaxation. We start each day with the best of intentions but then get stuck by the flood of email messages or pulled into an unexpected meeting. As we struggle to reprioritize so we can get everything done before our deadlines, often our self-care activities are the first thing to be given up. No matter how much we plan, we all occasionally have days when that happens. In the short term, the impact of missing that grant deadline may be greater than the impact of missing a woodworking class. But it's important to recognize the cumulative impact of not prioritizing self-care and to make sure that in the long term, this is the exception rather than the norm.

The use of emotion may be important in exercise, particularly among exercise instructors. It has been established that exercise enjoyment is associated with increased exercise adherence. An instructor might aim to foster enjoyment in his participants as a means of increasing their program adherence. An instructor also might use emotion to elicit greater effort from her students. Cuing participants to feelings of anger and frustration during a cardio kickboxing class might lead to more effortful punches and stronger kicks. Conversely, a yoga instructor could use positive emotions or emotion-related states such as compassion to get her students in the proper mindset for their practice. Evidently, there are a number of ways emotions could be used to enhance performance in sport and exercise.

The most fundamental rule regarding the use of any measuring device is that the device should always be read to its optimum capability with regard to precision. Precision is reflected in the number of digits in a measurement; the more digits this measurement has, the more precise it is. For example, the measurement 345.2 inches is more precise than the measurement 345 inches. If it is possible to obtain the first digit to the right of the decimal point from a device, then that digit should be recorded; if it is possible to obtain the second digit to the right of a decimal point, then that digit should be recorded, and so on. Thus, a laboratory worker should endeavor to obtain the most digits possible from whatever device is being used whether it is digital or nondigital.

The standard school mathematics curriculum doesn't stress enough that mathematics is all about abstraction. Mathematicians study specific objects but, usually, they aim to cluster them together and study them all at the same time. This saves huge amounts of time and effort because they must prove properties only once, for the whole class of objects, instead of studying each object individually. Even more importantly, this guarantees that every object within a class has a particular property, even the objects that haven't been defined yet. Often, when mathematicians want to prove that an important object behaves in a particular way, they prove instead that it belongs to a class already known to have this property. We reason similarly in everyday life: since all fruits have seeds, and an apple is a fruit, then an apple must have seeds.

Because belief is so crucial in the placebo effect, it would seem that deception is necessary in order to trigger a patient's trust in the actual drug he might be taking. But Ted Kaptchuk, a leading placebo researcher at Harvard, is investigating the possibility of doing away with the element of deception. He tells patients up front that they will be taking a placebo, but he also informs them about how powerful and effective placebos can be. In one trial with irritable bowel syndrome, it was found that roughly 59 percent of those on an open placebo treatment reported improvements, as compared with 35 percent of the control group that received no treatment. The results may seem modest, but they make the point that giving a placebo isn't the same as doing nothing.

We usually think of a clock as a physical thing, like an alarm clock or a wristwatch. But a clock is really a process embodied in a machine, and the nature of that process is repetitive. A clock can be almost any process that repeats itself over and over again for an indefinite period. Water clocks drip at a steady pace; quartz crystals vibrate regularly. Indeed, it is almost impossible to think of a clock that does not depend on a repetitive cycle of events. The only example that comes to mind readily is a candle marked in hours. But here too there is iteration the repeated burning of molecules of wax so this too is an iterative process, although at first masked. The use of radiocarbon dating is another, much longer scale clock that also appears to be like this. It seems to yield a smooth time scale but in fact does not: the decay of atoms of carbon-14 is repetitive, although on a large scale it gives the appearance of being continuous.

In academia, you are taught to write up your results thus: _ came up with a hypothesis, then I did this experiment, and then I did another experiment, then I tested my ideas some more, and so on until dramatic fanfare ta-da! I proved this. If you wrote this way online, very few of your readers would make it to your dramatic conclusion, no matter how exciting or groundbreaking it was. Online, we don_ have the patience to wait for your big reveal at the end. Instead, you need to tell us up front: _ proved this! And here_ how I know it... Your readership may still dwindle and trail off over the course of your writing, but at least the vast majority know what it is you_e achieved from the very beginning. A few more of them may stay along for the ride if the opening line the _ook, in journalistic terms is particularly interesting. If you grab their attention early, you can more likely convince more readers to stay for the whole story.

The human perceptual system is designed to recognize objects under changing illuminations, situations, and contexts. It is extraordinarily adapted to a constantly changing world. To deal with this uncertainty, the brain uses not one, but multiple routes. If one is blocked, it takes another route. This immense flexibility of the brain to rely on changing cues, according to whatever is available, is known as vicarious functioning. It can be found in most biological systems. For instance, migrating birds fly thousands of miles and may rely on the stars to navigate. But if it's a cloudy day, they may instead rely on landmarks or their magnetic sense. Similarly, the brain can recognize a face by the shape of the eyes, nose, and mouth. In extreme cases, only a few lines are sufficient, as when we recognize the face of a celebrity in caricatures made with just a few pencil strokes. Face recognition also functions even when parts of a face are covered and internal features such as eyes are hardly visible. In this case, the brain relies on external features such as hair and head shape.

Bir Tawil is a strange place. In January 1899, administrators of the British Empire decided to finalize a border between the countries of Egypt and Sudan. In colonial fashion, they decided to use the conveniently straight line of the twenty-second parallel of latitude. Unsurprisingly, this new international border arbitrarily tore through local tribes and communities, and in 1902, the British drew a new line to reflect tribal territories. The combination of these two intersecting lines brought about the creation of two new areas: the large, inhabitable coastal area called the Hala'ib Triangle and an empty, landlocked patch of desert, which is Bir Tawil. To keep the desirable Hala'ib, Egypt understandably claimed the original, straight border of 1899, whereas Sudan with the same goal in mind claimed the new 1902 line. The strange result of this long-standing conflict is that, to this day, both countries refuse to claim Bir Tawil, an area of land roughly the size of London, as it would mean giving up a greater prize. This makes Bir Tawil the largest perhaps the only piece of land that no country wants.

An in-group can become a reference group, a group that is used as the frame of reference for evaluating one's own behavior. Members of a volunteer organization, for example, may evaluate themselves by the standards of the group and feel proud about their contribution to a community service project. This positive self-evaluation reflects the normative effect of a reference group whose members share the same view of themselves. If other members of your reference group (say, your parents) have high self-esteem, you, too, are likely to share that norm and have high self-esteem. The normative effect basically involves imitating the reference group. However, reference groups can also have comparison effects and associative effects on self-appraisals. If most of your classmates shine in academic achievement, you are likely to compare yourself with them. As a result, you may have a negative self-evaluation, feeling that your academic performance is not up to par. Being associated with the brilliant group, though, makes you feel proud of yourself, _asking in reflected glory.

In music, proximity may refer to elements' being close together in pitch, time, or space. For example, notes that are similar in pitch may be grouped together. Notes are also grouped together if they are played together in time or if they come from the same instrument or section of a larger musical group. To get a sense of the idea of proximity, imagine a person playing a piano. Typically, the right hand plays notes that are higher in pitch than the left hand. Also, most often, it is the right hand that plays the melody, whereas the left hand plays the bass line or accompaniment. Even though all of the notes are played in close spatial proximity and at approximately the same time, we hear the notes from the right hand emerging as melody because they are grouped together with respect to pitch. Similarly, in some of Bach's famous solo music for violin, the violinist essentially creates two streams of music by simultaneously playing both high and lower notes. Perceptually, we group the high notes together and group the low notes together, so we hear it as polyphonic or as two lines of music.

Public goods are undervalued in markets, which exist for private goods but rarely for public goods. For example, aquatic habitats such as wetlands provide diverse benefits that are often public goods, including breeding or refuge for unique species, recreation, hunting and tourism, or purification of water supplies. These benefits are enjoyed simultaneously by many people and are provided to them for "free" by the natural functioning of the wetlands. As a result, there is no "market" and thus no "price" for these public good uses of wetlands. But the actual value of these services is not zero. Because many people benefit from these services, their value is the total additional benefits of all individuals who enjoy provision of these services by wetlands. This value could be huge, even though there is no apparent "market price" for these wetland services. This gap between the (zero) price for wetland services and their actual value to all beneficiaries indicates how much these public goods are undervalued in markets.

While stories clearly dominate statistics from both memorability and persuasiveness perspectives, it_ rarely a battle between facts and anecdotes or even facts and other facts. The real clash is actually between stories: the predominant incumbent and a new challenger. As storytelling creatures, we routinely form narratives to help us understand the world around us. When we experience different events or encounter various facts, our minds seek to make sense of them by forming stories around them. For example, if you have had some bad experiences with graduates from a particular university, you may create a negative narrative in your mind about people who went to that school. Suddenly, you judge everyone from the university by what you_e experienced on just a few unfortunate occasions. Sometimes these internal narratives we form not only shape our beliefs and opinions but also become deeply rooted in our identity. For example, the narratives you have formed around gun control or climate change are most likely related with your political ideology who you are as an individual.

Deep work is when you perform an activity with deep concentration that pushes your cognitive capabilities, and by doing so create new value and improve your skills. These efforts are hard to replicate; and to be able to do deep work, we need a distraction-free environment. For many people though, we spend far too much time on the other end of the scale, doing what is referred to as shallow work. This style of working is not cognitively demanding but is rather an execution of logical-type tasks that rarely create new value (although they may still be important). We often perform these tasks while we are distracted. Shallow work has its place, both because routine-type tasks need to be done and because we cannot spend our entire time doing deep work. The problem with too much shallow work is that we feel busy, maybe even stressed, but we rarely see any output reflecting our experienced effort.

Symbols are instrumental in helping people derive meanings from social situations. In social encounters, each person's interpretation or definition of a given situation becomes a subjective reality from that person's viewpoint. We often assume that what we consider to be "reality" is shared by others; however, this assumption is often incorrect. Subjective reality is acquired and shared through agreed-upon symbols, especially language. If a person shouts "Fire!" in a crowded movie theater, for example, that language produces the same response (attempting to escape) in all of those who hear and understand it. When people in a group do not share the same meaning for a given symbol, however, confusion results; for example, people who did not know the meaning of the word fire would not know what the commotion was about. How people interpret the messages they receive and the situations they encounter becomes their subjective reality and may strongly influence their behavior.

Depression is terrible, and it is common. Roughly one in seven people will experience at least one full-blown depressive episode in their lifetime. It is a tragedy on an individual and a societal level, yet we and by we, I mean all of us, including doctors struggle to grasp it. This is because depression is not one disease; it is a collection of symptoms that appears similar across sufferers, despite resulting from a melting pot of diverse causes and mechanisms. There is no single reason for depression: one person's depressive episode seems to clearly stem from recent life events, another from historic trauma and loss, yet another out of the blue, with no clear psychological or social cause whatsoever. There is also no one presentation of depression: in fact, there are 227 possible symptom combinations that meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Perhaps understandably, there is no one treatment for this condition, either. Antidepressants lead to improvement in roughly a third of patients, offer some kind of improvement in another third, while a final third remain completely unaffected.

Analogies can serve two different functions in philosophy. Sometimes, as seems often the case in Plato, for example, they serve simply to illustrate. When Socrates compares the Good with the sun, he may simply be using the image of the sun to help bring to life his arguments about the Good. On other occasions, however, the analogy can be an integral part of an argument. Consider one of the most popular arguments for the existence of God, the _rgument from design, which has been advanced by many thinkers, from the ancient Stoics to British theologian William Paley. The argument holds that just as an artefact such as a watch implies the existence of an artisan, so the universe implies the existence of a divine creator. Here the analogy with the watch is not meant simply to illustrate a point. Rather, the analogy is supposed to show why we should conclude that the universe has a creator.

Recovery can be considered a process as well as an outcome. Recovery as an outcome refers to one's physiological and psychological state after a certain recovery period, which can be, for instance, at the end of the day, after engaging in a certain activity, or after waking up. Physiological recovery outcomes involve the restoration of physiological resources such as muscle strength, heart rate, and the absence of physical fatigue (e.g., muscle soreness, heavy arms and legs). Psychological recovery outcomes relate to the restoration of mental resources such as attention, motivation, mental energy, and mood. As such, one's physiological and psychological states act as a resource that functions as a stress-buffer for upcoming activities as well. Recovery as a process refers to those activities and experiences that result in a change in one's physiological and psychological state. Accordingly, recovery processes precede recovery outcomes and, consequently, determine whether adequate recovery is obtained. Regarding recovery processes, physical inactivity is generally considered the most effective way to restore physiological resources.

The difficult times that we endure play a key role in helping us to lead more meaningful lives. As Jean-Paul Sartre put it, _uman life begins on the far side of despair. That is, many of the ways people feel their lives are meaningful are grounded in the sufferings they have experienced. One research project investigated the differences between people who found their lives to be happy and those who found them to be meaningful. While, on average, happy lives and meaningful lives overlap a great deal, the researchers focused on those aspects of a meaningful life that were distinct from happiness. And, remarkably, they found that people who had more meaningful lives reported that they had more experience suffering through past negative events. They also reported worrying more and enduring more things that caused them stress. On the other hand, these past experiences with suffering tended to reduce people's overall levels of happiness. Our sufferings, then, seem to help to provide people with the sense that their lives are more meaningful, even if these events are associated with lower feelings of happiness.

In modern societies, the performing arts form a distinct category of public entertainment in opposition to the mass distribution through the media of expertly staged performances which have been recorded and edited. By contrast, theater, ballet, circus, concert, rodeo, storytelling, etc., unfold their signs in real space and time, and engage audiences who respond cognitively and emotionally on the spot. Performers and audiences are involved in shared enjoyment. But sometimes frustration occurs within the boundaries of such ritualistic events. In industrialized and computerized cultures, the performing arts become economically unstable because the institutions which sustain them increasingly depend on public and corporate funding. However, they retain their power of fascination for large, if not massive audiences, who prize the experiential, risk-loaded and one-time event quality they afford. In traditional and local cultures, performances still survive and provide their audiences with a unique fulfillment in smaller scale, economically sustainable institutional settings. __臾: In a situation of financial challenges due to reliance on external funding, the performing arts, which provide unique and live experiences, secure audiences who value those experiences.

There are estimated to be more than 160,000 farms spread across Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland combined. On all of those farms, you will find barns, and in some of those barns, you might be fortunate enough to stumble across a classic tractor like the Massey Ferguson 35. Production of the Massey Ferguson 35 in the UK and the USA stopped in 1964. If you were to strike up a conversation with a farmer who still owns one, she might well give the chassis of her Massey Ferguson 35 an affectionate tap and nostalgically remark, _hey don_ make _m like that anymore. The fact that the tractor has survived at least fifty-eight years seems to provide evidence of its superior build quality. But wait how long did the other 388,381 Massey Ferguson 35 tractors produced between 1956 and 1964 last before they went for scrap? Rather than build quality, it might well be the fondness that people in Ireland have for the little red tractor (Harry Ferguson, who developed it, was born in Ireland) that has led farmers there to hold on to their Massey Fergusons and take care of them as well as they have. __臾: While the long-standing presence of the Massey Ferguson 35 on Irish farms may seem to reflect its durability, it might instead be due to the strong affection that farmers have for the tractor.

During crises that present immediate danger (e.g., natural disasters, acts of violence or terrorism, transportation crises), people seek trusted and verified sources to ease their immediate concerns, thus turning to traditional sources such as television and radio. For other crisis types, such as public health and political crises, however, people are more likely to turn to social media where they can seek multiple voices and a variety of expert opinions, as, unlike the first set of crises, public health and political crises may be more subjective and less straightforward, and thus necessitate a deeper dive into supplementary information and evidence. In addition to the type of crisis at hand, Liu, a communication scholar, and colleagues argued that traditional and social media have different effects on different audiences regarding the motivation to follow instructions and recommended behaviors during crises. For example, although younger audiences seem to favor social media to traditional media sources during times of crisis, older audiences indicate a preference for traditional media. Thus, both traditional and social media play a prominent role in delivering important scientific information to the public during crises. __臾: While people select traditional media for urgent crises and social media for complex and subjective issues, generational factors also influence how different population groups approach these media choices during emergencies.

Focal points are the little things that make a big difference the difference between reaching one equilibrium and reaching another. If a local soccer team comes to practice near the playground of the park every Saturday morning or a group of stay-at-home parents arranges a regular trip at 3 P.M. on a Wednesday afternoon, that can create a focal point around which others coordinate. With the team at practice, the park will feel safe from muggers and there will be something to look at, so families will come along to use the park. Other families will come because the first families will be there; after the soccer season is over and the team no longer comes to practice, Saturday mornings can still be lively at the playground simply because everybody expects that they will be. A lively park playground can be created by a soccer practice that doesn't even take place any longer: That is an indication of how whimsically unpredictable these multiple equilibria can be. Yet while the outcome is whimsical, the causes are rational. __臾: Focal points, such as a local soccer team's regular practice, can foster self-sustaining patterns of activity in public spaces through rational coordination, even when the outcomes may appear unforeseeable.

As the set of cultural norms and categories taken for granted at any particular time, the present is normally more or less invisible to those who participate in it. It is the unthought background of their thought and action, like water to a fish, or air to a dove. In films, this background can sometimes become visible as a bygone present in a film that is not just historically but culturally dated. In the culturally dated film, attitudes and ways of behaving that have altered over time and which now appear as quaint, strange, _ncorrect or problematic, are taken for granted by the characters in the film, and go unquestioned or are even happily endorsed in the film_ narrative. The present is also visible in contemporary historical dramas that _ead the past in terms of the present, anachronistically importing modern attitudes into the past they portray. This is something that is doubly evident in dated historical films that read the past in terms of their present, where the anachronisms are themselves reflective of a bygone present.

There is an obvious problem with the history of dress in all of its displays and that is, although textiles survive from early periods and cultures of recorded history, actual garments do not provide an uninterrupted flow of evidence across the same long time-span. Therefore, to give the study of dress equal significance to other areas such as architecture, painting, prints, drawings and sculpture, it was inevitable that these other areas would provide much of the source material. The history of surviving dress really only starts in the 17th century, and like all artefacts described as fine or decorative art, is a highly visual subject. However, unlike most of the categories of collection and study that make up those areas, it is fluid rather than static. Garments should be seen in movement on a human body, not frozen on a display figure. This is one of the many difficulties when curating collections of costume and also why some modern writers find costume collections physically and intellectually lifeless. Fortunately, in the period after 1660, when more items of dress survive to enrich our understanding of the history of the subject, there are also many painted, printed, photographed and filmed sources of evidence of people in clothing, caught in movement. Often a variety of different types of illustrative examples will provide evidence about how a garment was worn within the period in which it was made. Without the information contained in art in all of its forms, from drawing to sculpture, it is likely that displays of historic dress would be awkward imitations of the intentions of their original makers and owners.

Women's dresses from the eighteenth century offered a great opportunity for repurposing, as they were frequently fashioned from long, uncut lengths of fabric. Textiles were significantly more costly than the labor it took to alter them, and as a result, most garments were modified numerous times to keep up with changes in fashion. "Even the wealthy saved fabrics, remodeled clothes, and sold unwanted items in the secondhand market," observes fashion scholar Linda Welters. "Sustainability was a way of life." Indeed, although change is inherent to fashion, the remodeling of the existing clothing, rather than buying new, was a widespread practice. It is rare, in fact, to find an eighteenth-century dress that does not show some sign of alteration. The cost of having a gown made, or remade, was only about half the cost of the textile itself and could be significantly less, depending on the type of fabric. In addition to updated dress silhouettes, accessories and trimmings played an important role in refreshing old clothing styles. For example, the addition of a row of lace on an upper part of a gown was an economical alternative to the full replacement of the gown. Many eighteenth-century dresses, particularly those from the first half of the century, were constructed with relatively crude stitches, indicating that the effortless disassembly of the original gown was a consideration. Because fabrics retained value even when they were not in fashion, hand-woven silks, cherished for their quality and beauty, were sometimes passed down through generations.

The rise of internet-based technologies means that news is produced, distributed, and consumed faster than ever before. However, the reliability of this news is questionable. Not all organizations or individuals putting out information spend time checking the details or putting the facts into a wider context. People are confronted with overwhelming amounts of information not just on a daily basis, but via minute-by-minute updates transmitted to audiences around the globe. More than ever before, people are involved in organizing and managing the amount and type of news they receive. The internet means that irrespective of where we are in the world or what time of the day it is, news can be accessed from broadcasters located anywhere on the planet. As "new media" such as mobile phones, computers, and other portable devices have become more affordable, compact, and embedded in everyday life, they have come to replace television and newspapers. For younger people, advances in technology form part of the world they were born into. But the ease of use and affordability of new media means that they are an integral feature of the lives of people of all ages. For US sociologist Matthew Hindman, technological advances have made news more "democratic," meaning that now people of all ages and from all social backgrounds can access it. Others fear that new media poses a threat. Information on the internet is often unregulated, so while it is more accessible than ever before, its reliability is difficult to discern.

Since the 1970s, a combination of forces has made the problem of overwork more widespread. The service sectors in Western economies have grown dramatically while employment in manufacturing has declined. The shrinking of labor unions and workplace protections has let employers push for longer hours while global competition, decreased job security, and flat wages have forced workers to work harder to stay in place. Corporations now shed staff in the course of restructuring and "process reengineering," forcing surviving workers to carry heavier workloads. The 2008 recession and recovery has strengthened a pattern in which companies seek to grow by increasing demands on existing workers rather than hiring new ones. A few industries have turned into fast-moving, winner-take-all contests: small numbers of people stand to make immense fortunes when their tech company goes public, their hedge fund investment pays off, or their song goes viral ― and since no one knows how long they have until fashions change, technology evolves, or the bubble bursts, it makes sense to go all-in right now. As a result, many of us are actually working longer hours. Working hours generally decline with increased productivity, but in the 1970s, increased productivity stopped yielding shorter working hours, despite the expectations of generations of economists. Working hours started to rise in the United States in the 1980s, especially among salaried workers and professionals like doctors, lawyers, bankers, and academics; in contrast, working hours (and full-time jobs and salaries) in less skilled, hourly professions began to fall. Since then, this split has spread to other parts of the world: today, well-off, well-educated people in Western Europe, Australia, and South Korea are also more likely to be overworked, while more poor people struggle to find stable jobs and face chronic underemployment.

Political psychologist Philip Tetlock examined the speeches made by policymakers involved in international conflicts. He noted that, in making important decisions, national leaders often fall back on overly simplified images of the world. During the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, for example, two very simple images of the conflict were dominant. One of these was the deterrence view ― that any sign of weakness would be taken advantage of by the opponent and that leaders needed to show their willingness to use military force. From a deterrence perspective, some demonstration of aggressiveness is often necessary as a preventive measure to stop the other side from aggressing against one's group. People who hold a deterrence view ― that demonstrations of weakness would be taken advantage of ― are less likely to support nuclear disarmament. The other prominent view was a conflict spiral view, which presumed that every escalation of international threat leads the opponent to feel more threatened and that leaders need to demonstrate peaceful intentions in order to reduce the opponent's own defensive hostilities. Tetlock noted that each of these cognitive frames was correct in some circumstances and incorrect in others. Against an opponent such as Hitler, a deterrence viewpoint might have been more effective than a view that led to conciliation. On the other hand, international policy experts estimate that the U.S. invasion of Iraq, argued by President G. W. Bush to be the centerpiece of the war on terror, seems to have fueled increases in the membership of Al-Qaeda (the group responsible for the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001).

One word is inextricably associated with geography: where. That is because geography starts from the premise that it matters where something takes place on Earth's surface. The key questions are not simply "where" questions, though; they are "why there" and "so what" questions. Getting to such questions means taking spatial arrangements, variations, and interconnections seriously. Engaging in even the simplest day-to-day activity requires some appreciation of spatial circumstances where to find food and services, how to get to work places, and the like. Moving up in scale, without some awareness of how phenomena are arranged on Earth's surface, it is difficult to make reasoned business or policy judgments, make sense of events, or grasp some of the basic forces shaping life on the planet. Locating a new store or public service requires taking into consideration population distributions, the location of roads and utilities, socio-economic patterns, and more. Understanding why and where migration happens requires consideration of the political organization of territory, the spatial consequences of discrimination, socioeconomic patterns, and the layout of the physical environment.

Perhaps nothing has revolutionized the study of human-environment interactions more than the development of spatially explicit methods for collecting and analyzing data. Just a few decades ago, most natural and social scientists collected their data without precise spatial referents. References were made to watersheds, to communities, to villages, to cities, to proximity to rivers, and so on. In some cases (in anthropology mostly), there was even the custom of changing the name of the community and even its location, "to protect the informants." While confidentiality remains an important concern when working with human subjects, the extreme to which this was done was largely unjustified. Everyone knew more or less where these studied communities were, and anyone interested could have found out. Be that as it may, there was very little interest, except in geography, to precisely locate a study area on a map with coordinates. Geography persisted, and finally convinced the rest of us, that place was fundamentally important to understand human-environment dynamics.

The idea that our senses may be deceiving us was taken up by the French philosopher and mathematician Ren챕 Descartes. He realized that sometimes our senses give us a false impression a straight stick in a glass of water appears to be bent, for example. And if we know that they can be unreliable, it would be wrong to trust them completely everything that we experience with our senses might be false. It might even be that we are asleep, and that the world we are experiencing is no more than a dream, or that God or some mischievous power is making us believe things that are not really true. If that is the case, though, we can never know anything for sure. But Descartes then showed that there was one thing he could be sure of: In order to be deceived, he must exist, and exist as a thing that thinks. So, although his senses could not be trusted, he could be sure he existed as something that was capable of thinking and reasoning.

Hunters in the Ache tribe, living in the Paraguayan jungle, have a lot of ups and downs in their success at the hunt. Some days they bring home much more food than they could possibly eat; other days they come home empty-handed. If a man caught a wild pig and hoarded it for himself and his family, much of it would go to waste (there are no deep-freeze refrigerators in the Paraguayan jungle). During unlucky periods, individual hunters and their families would starve. Instead of living by a philosophy of "rugged individualism," however, hunters who have a lucky day share their meat with other families. And they don't just share a little; they share a lot fully 90%. In exchange for this generosity, their neighbors share with them on days when the luck runs the other way. By exchanging resources, particularly those that are unpredictable and uncertain (like meat from the hunt, as opposed to vegetable crops), the group provides a mutual insurance policy against starvation.

What is soft-path river engineering? One way to visualize its spirit is to liken it to a footpath in the forest. Suppose a tree falls across a footpath. A soft-path response would be simply to redirect the trail around the fallen tree. A more interventionist response would be to remove the tree and restore the original route. A still more interventionist response might be to straighten and pave the path to insert it more permanently in the landscape. The true high-modernist step would, of course, be to create a superhighway that removes the landscape and bulldozes straight through all obstacles in the topography. Soft-path engineering has the unique advantage of intellectual modesty with respect to what we actually know about river movement and its environmental effects. In contrast to hard-path engineering, soft-path engineering accepts variability in the river's movement as significant until proven otherwise. Backwaters, short-lived wetlands, braids and channels, swamps all undesirable to hard-path engineering are presumed by soft-path engineers to be ecologically important.

Connectivity, the capacity of a landscape to support movement by any given species across the landscape, is of increasing concern for conservation biologists. As the connectivity of a landscape increases from the human perspective (generally through increases in road networks), connectivity decreases for many other species. Although we may see many species of animals moving across human landscapes (e.g. deer, wolves, and turtles crossing roads or wandering through our backyards), landscapes substantially altered for human use act as barriers to movement of both animal and plant species. In some cases, these barriers are incomplete many turtles die on roads, but some make it across. In other cases, passage is essentially impossible cities along landscape corridors such as river valleys can effectively eliminate genetic exchange between previously connected plant and animal populations; dams can permanently halt spawning of fish by blocking travel to their breeding grounds. Thus, lack of connectivity can decrease the conservation value of remaining habitat below what its mapped area might suggest, increasing the impact of fragmentation.

By enhancing energy efficiency and putting waste products to use, biopower helps move utilities and industries in a sustainable direction. The U.S. forest products industry now obtains half its energy by combusting woody waste and liquid waste from pulp mill processing. Biopower helps alleviate climate change as well by reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and capturing landfill gas reduces emissions of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Biopower also benefits human health as it cuts down on pollution; by replacing coal in co-firing and direct combustion, biopower reduces emissions of sulfur dioxide because plant matter, unlike coal, contains no appreciable sulfur content. In addition, biomass resources tend to be geographically spread out, so using them can help support rural economies and reduce many nations' dependence on imported fuels.

One example of human interventions modifying the character of savannas is through their effects on savanna-dwelling mammals such as elephants. They are what is known as a 'keystone species' because they have a strong effect on many aspects of the environment in which they live. They diversify the ecosystems which they occupy and create a mosaic of habitats by browsing, trampling, and knocking over bushes and trees. They also spread seeds through their eating and defecating habits and maintain or create water holes by wallowing. All these roles are beneficial to other species. Conversely, where human interference prevents elephants from moving freely within their habitats and leads to their numbers exceeding the carrying capacity of the savanna, their effect can be environmentally disastrous. Equally, if humans reduce elephant numbers in a particular piece of savanna, the savanna may become less diverse and less open, and its water holes may fill with mud. This will be harmful to other species.

A good example of chaos is the magnetic pendulum sold as an executive toy. It has four magnets arranged in a square at the base and a pendulum that swings back and forth between them. Release the pendulum and note the magnets that it visits, and in what order. If the pendulum is released from the same position a second time, the pattern of movement may at first be the same but soon it will become completely different. In fact, the pattern of its movement is chaotic. No matter how much care is taken to start the pendulum in the same position, it will visit an entirely different set of points on the two occasions. Chaotic systems are generated by iteration, though not all iteration leads to chaos. In order to produce chaos, the iteration has to be within what is called a nonlinear system. Nor are all nonlinear systems chaotic: to become so they need to be pushed beyond a certain point, called a bifurcation. Before that point is reached they may behave in a quite orderly fashion.

There is one important thing to note about momentum. Since motion is relative, only relative velocities are relevant. In fact, when you think about it, all velocities are relative. Thus, on the surface of the earth, we always reckon velocity with respect to the ground the velocity of the earth itself does not matter. There is a true story of a French pilot in World War II who stretched his hand out of his small airplane window and caught a bullet. How is this possible? The velocity of the bullet must have been about the same as the velocity of his plane. This can happen, because a bullet slows down to such a velocity toward the end of its flight path due to the action of air drag. Since only relative velocity matters, the momentum of the bullet was negligible as far as the pilot was concerned. Thus, he would have had little problem in catching the bullet.

Hipparchus of Nicaea was the most important astronomer of the Hellenistic Age after Aristarchus of Samos. Unlike Aristarchus, Hipparchus believed in the geocentric universe of Aristotle. A noted mathematician, Hipparchus gauged the movement of the sun and the moon using an astronomical model devised by Apollonius of Perga. Hipparchus worked at Alexandria and Rhodes; at the latter city, he created a kind of astronomical research center in which he cataloged the stars according to brightness. He produced a star chart of about 850 stars, tracking their movements and relative brightness. Hipparchus made more accurate measurements than Aristarchus did of the distance of the moon and sun from the earth. To account for the orbit of the sun around the earth he developed the idea of the eccentric, which Ptolemy of Alexandria would expand upon.

Living things are not confined to the familiar temperate realm of land, water, and sunlight inhabited by plants and plant-eating animals. They can be found in the darkest depths of the ocean, in hot volcanic mud, in pools beneath the frozen surface of the Antarctic, and buried kilometers deep in the Earth's crust. The creatures that live in these extreme environments are generally unfamiliar, not only because they are inaccessible, but also because they are mostly microscopic. In more homely habitats, too, most organisms are too small for us to see without special equipment: they tend to go unnoticed, unless they cause a disease or rot the timbers of our houses. Yet microorganisms make up most of the total mass of living matter on our planet. Only recently, through new methods of molecular analysis and specifically through the analysis of DNA sequences, have we begun to get a picture of life on Earth that is not grossly distorted by our biased perspective as large animals living on dry land.

The shoreline was known for having the best fishing spots on the lake. Jessie was sitting at one of those spots, but her fishing line still hadn't moved an inch. With a deep sigh, Jessie pulled out the line and cast it back into the water. Her dream of catching a big fish was fading. "I can't believe I haven't caught a fish yet. Not a single one," she thought. Just as she was about to give up and leave, the fishing line suddenly became tense. Jessie excitedly held onto the fishing pole as it began to move around wildly. Her eyes widened and her heart began to beat faster with excitement. With a big smile, she could feel that this was the biggest fish she had ever caught!

Today's cultural tourist is just as likely to be in search of 'popular', 'everyday' or 'street' culture as they are likely to visit a heritage site or a museum. The museum seems to have lost its dominant role as a factory of meaning in (post)modern society, so cultural tourists have gone in search of meaning elsewhere. The predominant direction of expansion has been into 'everyday life'. Cultural tourism is as much based on experiencing as it is on seeing; therefore, Raymond Williams' definitions of culture as a whole way of life as well as the arts and learning are particularly relevant here. Past definitions of cultural tourism have placed too much emphasis on cultural tourism as a form of arts or heritage tourism in its narrowest sense; for example, visiting museums, monuments, galleries and theatres. Cultural tourists are also interested in the more experiential aspects of culture. In an international context, particularly in the context of indigenous or ethnic tourism, the way of life of a people can be a central focus, where the traveller is motivated primarily by first-hand, authentic or intimate contact with people whose ethnic or cultural background is different from their own.

Although many U.S. Americans consider mathematics boring and tedious, all forms of standardized rankings involve figures and numbers. When ranking quarterbacks, for instance, the NFL (National Football League) standardizes the ranking process by defining different numerical categories that cover all aspects of the position. Each quarterback has certain numbers and figures, ranging from "percentage of pass completions" to "interceptions over touchdowns" to "number of yards passed per game." The quarterback's livelihood depends on those numbers. To negotiate a raise, a quarterback has to improve his numbers, and when a quarterback is benched, it is often due to unsatisfactory numbers. Similarly, at least 13 million Americans belong to virtual football leagues in which participants select players from different professional teams; at the end of the season, the participant whose virtual team has amassed the most points, defined by each virtual league differently, wins the jackpot. Such leagues even have a draft at the beginning of the season.

The purpose of class discussions is to encourage you to be an active participant, not a passive recorder. Much of the emphasis in a discussion is on getting students involved in thinking, reacting, and responding. These are important intellectual activities in the learning process, for through them you are supposed to discover and express your opinions. Writing is an invaluable tool for accomplishing these tasks. Unfortunately, too many times, when class discussion begins, pens and pencils go down. Admittedly, it is considerably more difficult to take notes from discussions than from lectures, for, unlike lectures, discussions tend to be disorganized and difficult to follow. Also, students usually don't know how much of what other students are saying is important. And if you are an active participant, it is not easy to take notes and formulate what you want to say. But note taking in discussions is not only manageable, it is also important. Note taking helps to keep you active and alert; it allows you to impose some organization on the discussion; and it can prepare you to speak.

Teaching reflects what society itself demands; it necessitates that disorder of students and teachers alike, of mind, behavior, and environment yield to its opposite. Effective teaching requires that, failing their own self-imposed order, students experience the imposition of some outer order so that inner order may develop. This means in practice, for instance, that the goals of classes and courses be clearly set, that they be explained and justified, that the manner of achieving them be clear, that the presentation of materials conducive to reaching them be appropriate, and that all activities be directed somehow to their attainment. It means, too, that students take up their own obligation to maintain the conditions under which learning occurs: quiet in their classrooms, respect for and courtesy toward others, civility of language and behavior, and the like. Above all, it implies structured industry study and activity that are oriented toward a goal and pursued with perseverance and method. That is, good teaching requires that teachers and students subject themselves to external and internal control so that learning can take place.

When we lecture, scold, yell, or criticize, when we say something positive but in a sarcastic tone, or when we try to make our kids feel guilty, it activates their amygdala, triggering their stress response and putting them into a defensive, rigid, reactive state. Even more basic, when we say no or don't, it releases stress chemicals in our kids' brains (and in ours) that are associated with fear and anger. Functional brain imaging research has shown that even seeing the word no on a screen for less than a second while you're lying in an MRI scanner will cause your brain to suddenly release dozens of stress-producing hormones and neurotransmitters. Conversely, positive words like yes, love, and peace activate systems in the prefrontal cortex that are related to emotional regulation. The problem is that negative words like no and don't have a more powerful effect on kids than positive words. For this reason, the researchers Suniya Luthar and John Gottman say that "bad is stronger than good" when it comes to communicating with children and teens.

The experiences of learning to ride a bicycle or drive a car illustrate well how the "what" and "how" systems those involved in object identification and practical action might interact during development. When we learn to drive a car, we go through a first stage where each required action and sequence of actions such as looking in the mirror, signaling with the blinker, pressing the clutch prior to shifting into gear, and so forth are explicitly thought of and double-checked while monitoring our situation in the environment. Once learned and after a few hours of practice, the required actions for driving become second nature, transferable to almost any vehicle and performed without explicit thinking. Information appears to be perceived directly; the affordances of the road, the car, and the traffic implicitly detected. Actually, this sort of automatization of conscious learning can be jeopardized by the return of explicit awareness. If you start to think too much about your driving, you actually increase your chances of having an accident. People in sport competitions confirm that self-consciousness is one's worst enemy: tennis, golf, or billiard players commonly report that they lose their "touch" by thinking too much about their moves.

In most fiction, characters' lives are limited to the individual work. Readers may disagree on the characteristics and traits of fictional figures, and in drama there is room for different interpretations of characters. However, it is less common for characters in literary fiction to reappear in subsequent works than in genre fiction, where series featuring the same central characters are common. This is even more pronounced in comics, which are typically serialized in newspaper strips or comic books. Thus characters introduced in the 1930s, like Superman and Batman, may still enjoy new adventures decades later. During these characters' long histories, they change in various ways for a variety of reasons. If a character is created by a single author, like Sherlock Holmes, the character's core traits may change little from story to story, but readers learn more about him with each successive story. On the other hand, if characters are the work of several hands over decades, they may change considerably. __臾: While characters in most literary fiction hardly ever feature in successive works, those in genre fiction and comics often do so, and may undergo transformation in their traits especially when written about by different authors over time.

In the context of a studio visit, the viewer might notice several clipped newspaper articles pinned to the wall, a wax-coated hotplate, walls with paint marks, resin-drizzled floors and several sculptures barely visible through their plastic wrap. Such real-world clues offer the visitor a foothold onto the artist's oeuvre. The studio visitor imagines that the artist is currently a painter, who applies wax and resin and finds inspiration in particular articles. Similarly, guests experiencing artworks in some homes notice art positioned next to furnishings, family photographs displayed on the piano and coffee-table books stacked to demonstrate preferences. Together, these components affect particular experiences. Within the artist's studio or collector's home, residue from studio activities or the collector's personal belongings help to connect the artworks to the world. By contrast, artworks displayed in exhibitions feel comparatively isolated, practically clipped from the world where they originated. This could explain why aestheticians tend to treat artworks as singletons, rather than as members of some set.

Linguists typically distinguish between signals that are communicative and those that are informative, depending on whether the information is conveyed intentionally or not. For example, a deliberate wink is distinguished from an involuntary blink by the communicative intention that lies behind it. Yet in intercultural interaction, information conveyed unintentionally may actually be interpreted as intentional; for instance, in some cultures, showing the soles of one's shoes can communicate an insult and when somebody does that, it is typically assumed to have communicative intent. However, for someone from a cultural group where that convention does not exist, such behaviour would be unintentional and hence would not be communicative. In other words, a given piece of behaviour may be communicative to some of the participants and only informative to others.

Through stories we can explore the human condition and see how other people think. This can affirm our own beliefs and perceptions, but it also challenges them. Regardless of the language, there is something universal about what occurs in the brain at the point when we are processing narratives, triggering better self-awareness and empathy for others. Psychologists scanned people listening to narratives in English, Farsi, and Mandarin, and found the same patterns of brain activation when people found meaning in the stories. Other studies find that reading fiction significantly increases empathy toward others, including people of a different race or religion. And the more absorbed in a story a reader is, the more empathetically they behave in real life. For instance, if the researcher "accidentally" dropped his pens, those participants who had previously reported being "highly absorbed" in the story were about twice as likely to help pick up the pens. Another study concluded that literary fiction "uniquely engages the psychological processes needed to gain access to characters' subjective experiences." That is to say, if you read novels, you can probably read emotions, vital skills for forming cooperative societies.

Information and meaning are, clearly, not the same thing. The former refers to uninterpreted data or sensory states whose probability in a certain situation can be easily measured; the latter refers to the interpretation of the data or sensory states, including the special kinds of nuances and values that the information entails, or is intended to have, in the given situation. This applies to any type of information, from alarm signals to sophisticated statements. Take, for instance, a coin-tossing game in which it is decided that throwing three heads in a row constitutes a win. If a certain player ends up consistently with the desired outcome, defeating all who challenge that player, then we tend to interpret the outcome either as the work of Fortune, or else as clever and undetectable cheating on the part of the winning player. Interpretation is at the core of everything we do, think about, and feel.

Over the past twenty years, with the arrival of digital politics, social and political protest movements have changed and become ever more prominent through what the sociologist Manuel Castells has called Networks of Outrage and Hope. We now have a swirling world of 'online activism', digital rebellion, information politics and People's Platforms. Smartphones and social networking now provide a more fluid, leaderless, participatory activism that arises more spontaneously. The early examples like the Occupy Movement (2011), the Arab Spring in Egypt (2010), the Umbrella Movement in Hong Kong (2014, 2019), the Gezi Park Movement in Turkey (2013), and the Pussy Riots in Russia (2011) galvanized large numbers of people and attracted world attention. While some suggest that these new politics are enhancing democracy, others maintain that they do not really challenge the dominant power groups. Looking back, most of them have proved unsuccessful, clamped down upon by the state. There seems a limit to the power of new social movements.

The advent of automobiles drastically altered urban landscapes by enabling the growth of suburbs. Cars provided individuals the ability to live farther from city centers, where land was cheaper and more abundant. This expansion created the modern suburb, characterized by residential zones separate from commercial and industrial areas, promoting a shift from high-density urban living to the spacious suburbs. The flexibility cars offered meant people could commute daily, uniting work, leisure, and homelife in new ways. In response, urban planning evolved, placing emphasis on roads and highways to accommodate increased travel. This decentralization led to altered living patterns, encouraging families to seek homes in quieter, suburban environments while maintaining access to urban job markets. The sprawling growth fueled demands for expanded infrastructure and services in these areas, bringing in new economic opportunities. Cars were instrumental in shaping this living model by significantly detaching home locations from places of employment and recreation.

One reason that people participate in social media is because it builds social relations. We increase our social capital when we successfully engage in social media. Social capital describes the networks of relationships we have that are built on mutuality and sharing of identity, understanding, norms and values. We build ties that may pay off with a job lead or a letter of recommendation. We reinforce our identities through our online presentation in a personal blog or our profile. "The premise behind the notion of social capital is rather simple and straightforward: investment in social relations with expected returns," noted sociologist Nan Lin. Lin's work stresses that it is who you know as much as what you know that shapes our experience in society. With new media, our reach of connecting is all the greater, expanding our "who you know" to greater and greater lengths.

People like pictures of the savanna, even if they have never been there. In one study, people of different ages (8, 11, 15, 18, 35, and over 70 years) looked at images of tropical forests, deciduous forests, coniferous forests, deserts, and the East African savanna. Eight-year-old children said that they would like to live in or visit the savanna more than any other environment. After the age of 15, people also liked deciduous and coniferous forests. Since none of these people had visited savannas, the implication is that this preference was programmed into their brains. This programmed preference is called "the savanna hypothesis." As people get older, this preference gets modified by where they have lived. Synek and Grammer, researchers in evolutionary psychology, confirmed these findings in a different study. They showed that young children in Austria prefer landscapes thinly dotted with trees and with low mountains, scenes that resemble the savanna. After puberty, their preferences shifted to areas with denser trees and higher mountains, again, presumably, because of more experience with these terrains.

Dreamers find it difficult to determine whether a memory is from a dream or some other source after time has passed, known as "source monitoring." It is difficult to distinguish between memories of real dreams and made-up ones, imagination or stories someone else told us. Dream source monitoring was found to be less accurate than other memory source monitoring. A cognitive psychologist, Marcia K. Johnson and her colleagues' explanation is that "real dreams are deficient in information about cognitive operations that help identify the self-generations we create when we are awake." Although dreams are usually more vivid than imagination, the cognitive operations that generate imagining are also remembered. Remembering that you intentionally thought of an image helps distinguish it from a perception that you did not intentionally generate. Dream generation, in contrast, is "transparent" in that we don't experience the generation process, making it more difficult to source monitor.

Much research in social psychology has documented some of the key strategies that people rely upon in defending the belief I am good. For example, when people perform poorly at something, they tend to trivialize their failures. This trivialization disarms those failures and prevents them from overwriting their life stories. Imagine, say, that someone fails a calculus test. A common defensive response is to conclude that this test was just not that important to them. They may say to themselves, "Who cares about calculus anyway. I'm not going to become a mathematician." In contrast, people will typically show the precise opposite pattern for their successes and will interpret those events as being of outsize importance. So if someone aces a calculus test, they may think to themselves about how crucial calculus is for their future career success and how it's key to getting into graduate school or getting a highly desired job as an engineer or a financial analyst. By titrating how importantly people view their successes and failures, they can shape their emotional reactions to these events in a way that enables them to tell a more convincing story that I am good.

When gathering the preferences of multiple agents into one collective choice, it is easily seen that certain cases call for randomization or other means of tiebreaking. For example, if there are two alternatives, a and b, and two agents such that one prefers a and the other one b, there is no deterministic way of selecting a single alternative without violating one of two basic fairness conditions known as anonymity and neutrality. Anonymity requires that the collective choice ought to be independent of the agents' identities whereas neutrality requires impartiality towards the alternatives. Allowing lotteries as social outcomes hence seems like a necessity for impartial collective choice. Indeed, most common "deterministic" social choice functions such as plurality rule are only deterministic as long as there is no tie, which is usually resolved by drawing a lot. The use of lotteries for the selection of officials interestingly goes back to the world's first democracy in Athens, where it was widely regarded as a principal characteristic of democracy, and has recently gained increasing attention in political science.

Along with the mistaken notion that the law resides in the books goes the equally mistaken idea that law is secret, or at least inaccessible to the ordinary person. To understand and apply the law at the advanced, technical level that lawyers do requires professional knowledge, but to understand the basic substance of the law does not. Law reflects life. The principles and issues embodied in the law are not different from those that we experience in other aspects of our lives. Contract law, for example, is a commentary on the way people make, interpret, keep, and break their promises in commercial and noncommercial settings. Few nonlawyers can describe the objective theory of contract formation or the Statute of Frauds, but they have thought a lot about contracts and promises. If you cross your fingers when you make a promise, does it mean that the promise doesn't count? If your newly purchased television doesn't work, can you return it to the store? And so on.

The internet has transformed the fashion marketplace, making it increasingly difficult to predict the demand for the selling season. Consumers can browse for product information and prices and gain comparative information almost instantaneously, making them more informed than ever before, transferring the balance of power from the retailer to the customer. This is exacerbated by open and real-time access to fashion shows, facilitated through livestreaming, coupled with social media access to celebrity looks and lifestyles and the sharing of all aspects of life on social media. Consumers use fashion choices to express their individual style and personality, especially those promoting 'brand me' on social media. The traditional two-season offer is no longer seen as enough, with consumers demanding new products throughout the whole year. This creates a problem for fashion retailers as many consumers are looking for more exclusive pieces to differentiate themselves, forcing up the desire for trend-led ever more rapidly changing styles, while still demanding affordable prices.

What deeply affected so many Black communities globally was not only that they could not metaphorically breathe because of the oppressive forms and limits of white supremacy, but also that so many Black communities literally cannot breathe because of environmental racism. Similarly to Black communities in the UK, Black Americans are also more likely to live near landfills, industrial plants and fossil-fuel infrastructure. The process by which this hazardous infrastructure is deliberately situated close to African American communities is called redlining. This process means that fossil-fuelled power plants and hazardous-waste facilities are disproportionately and deliberately situated in Black or ethnic-minority neighbourhoods. As a result of this, Black Americans are three times more likely to die from exposure to air pollutants than their white counterparts.

Honey can be eaten by itself or mixed with other ingredients. Natural or pure honey has had no additives, preservatives or synthetic ingredients added. Also referred to as 'undiluted', it is usually more expensive than diluted honeys. Natural honey can also be called 'blended honey', where honeys from various sources are blended together not by the bees, but by human processors and distributors in stages after the honey has been collected. Blending is frequently done for taste as well as marketing reasons, especially since some consumers find the darker honeys too strong. Mixing different types of honey together can make it more palatable, and also gives a more uniform flavour this is an important consideration for producers and retailers, who feel the need to guarantee reliable, unsurprising (typically mild) flavours to their customers. Clover is one of the most popular honeys in the U.S., and its mild flavour and taste have become familiar to many Americans.

Not too much or too little that's what moderation means. Moderation does not mean that you have to eliminate low-nutrient-density foods from your diet, such as soft drinks and candy, but rather that you can include them occasionally. Moderation entails not taking anything to extremes. You probably have heard that vitamin C has positive effects, but that doesn't mean huge doses of this essential nutrient are appropriate for you. It's also important to remember that substances that are healthful in small amounts can sometimes be dangerous in large quantities. For example, the body needs zinc for hundreds of chemical reactions, including those that support normal growth, development, and immune function. Too much zinc, however, can cause deficiency of copper, another essential mineral, which can lead to damaged immune function. Being moderate in your diet means that you do not restrict or completely eliminate any one type of food, but rather that all types of food can fit into a healthful diet.

Dietary behaviors are, in large part, the consequence of automatic responses to a particular situation with food, many of which lead to increased caloric consumption and poor dietary choices. Individuals are subject to inherent cognitive limitations and mostly lack the capacity to consistently recognize, ignore, or resist contextual cues that encourage eating. Take, for example, going to the movies. For many, a night at the movies also means sharing popcorn, candy, and soda. People often cannot resist this learned indulgence and are encouraged by the environment to eat a particular food. Another example is eating potato chips or peanuts that have been set out during a friendly card game or conversation with others. Individuals often consume snacks not because they are hungry, but because they are prompted by the social environment, which encourages them to eat. Similarly, grocery stores and restaurants have discovered the profits in suggestive selling, a sales technique where the customer is encouraged to make an additional purchase by taking advantage of a two-for-one sale or special discount. Grocery stores often use placement of items to encourage impulse buying.

Science shows that, when compared to adults, children naturally prefer higher levels of sweet and salty tastes and reject bitter tastes. This might help explain why children are drawn to more unhealthy food choices within our current food environment an environment composed of high-salt, high-refined-sugar foods. In support of this idea, studies have found that sensory experiences, beginning early in life, can shape preferences in both a positive and a negative way. For example, expecting mothers who consume diets rich in healthy foods can help develop their child's taste preferences in a positive way because flavors from foods that the mother eats are transmitted to amniotic fluid and to mother's milk, creating an environment in which breastfed infants are more accepting of these flavors. In contrast, infants fed formula learn to prefer its unique flavor profile and may have more difficulty initially accepting flavors not found in formula, such as those of fruit and vegetables. Having healthy food experiences early in life may go a long way toward promoting healthy eating throughout a person's life span.

Dear Pollet Toys, We are considering ordering 50 striped 2-inch plastic balls for the city-wide Youth Activity Day on June 14. According to your website, the balls are normally sold in individual plastic and cardboard packages. However, we will not need packaging or transportation for our order as we can pick up the balls, packed loose in cardboard boxes, directly from your warehouse. Given these circumstances, I would like to request a discount on our order. I believe that a discount of at least 25% would be reasonable. If you agree to this, please confirm the agreement in writing. If not, I would appreciate a call at 555-5555 as soon as possible so we can reach a mutually agreeable arrangement. I look forward to your positive response and hope that we can finalize the order details soon. Sincerely, Granville Community Center

Noah sat on the park bench, watching people set up telescopes. His parents had brought him to see a meteor shower, but he didn't care much. He had never thought the night sky was interesting. Stars were just tiny dots, and he didn't see why people were so excited. He folded his arms and stared at the ground, waiting for time to pass. Around him, voices buzzed with excitement, but he barely listened. Then, a sudden wave of surprise spread through the crowd. He looked up. A bright line of light shot across the sky, then another. The meteors burned fast, disappearing in seconds. His eyes widened. How often did this happen? Could he predict the next one? Were there more coming? He leaned forward, scanning every corner of the sky. The stars, once meaningless, now held his full attention. For the first time, he truly wanted to see more. * meteor shower: 유성우

Employees who are not privacy "literate" represent a vulnerability for businesses. They may compromise privacy and security measures and expose personal or confidential information without realizing it. Employee online access rights can and should be limited to what each employee needs to perform his or her job. However, while physical barriers, firewalls, passwords, and other security measures are useful, for most organizations access to large amounts of sensitive information by employees is necessary to do business. The key to ensuring employee adherence to privacy and security measures is to educate them and to develop a practice of ongoing education and other opportunities for reinforcement of the role that all employees play in securing critical information privacy by adhering to proper privacy and security protocols. Employees may have differing levels of access to information, but all should understand the importance of protecting private or confidential information and how their actions affect the security of this information. The very nature of private or commercially confidential information means that it should not be made publicly available. * protocol: 통신 규약

An odd, but interesting trigger I ran across while researching, was introduced by a man called Robert who had already recovered about 75 percent from RSI after reading Dr. Sarno's second book. He would have been nearly 100 percent recovered but he could not change the pattern of pain that occurred when using his right index finger to click the computer's mouse. In Robert's own words, "The strange part is that my finger and hand don't hurt when I close my eyes and move/click the mouse. It's as if the screen (and software) is the trigger for the pain!" He reduces his visual acuity when he closes his eyes, one of his senses. So, closing his eyes allegorically opens them by removing the sensory trigger. If he unconsciously despises staring at his computer screen because staring at it is in conflict with his unconscious wants and needs, then closing his eyes "cuts out" the source of information that triggers his anger, i.e., his eyesight. Sight is one of the senses that blinds us (Lao Tzu). * RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury): 반복 사용으로 인한 부상 ** acuity: 예민함 ***allegorically: 비유적으로

Handing over decision making to your children is a gradual process based on their age, maturity, and decision-making history. It would be downright dangerous to give children complete latitude in their decision making. You can, however, begin to teach decision making to very young children by setting reasonable limits to their decisions. For example, if you took your children into a convenience store and told them they could have anything they wanted, they would be overwhelmed by the choices (which, research shows, either tend to prevent people from making decisions or result in poor decisions). However, you can give them limited options to choose from, such as jawbreakers, licorice, and bubble gum (or, better yet, sesame sticks, fruit wraps, and yogurt peanuts), and they would then decide which treat they want. Your children will learn to make decisions, but they won't be inundated by the huge number of options available to them. * latitude: 자유 ** licorice: 감초 사탕 *** inundate: 감당하지 못할 정도로 주다

When we were investigating why Americans valued meat so much, we found widespread confusion among consumers about which foods are healthy and sustainable. As part of the project, we asked consumers to sort different foods in any way they thought they should be grouped. Participants ended up dividing foods into groups such as fruits, vegetables, and dairy. However, most consumers didn't know how to sort plant-based "milks" and meat alternatives. Interestingly, they didn't consider them as part of any typical food group. In addition, most people still don't understand (or trust) lab-grown or cultured meats. The reaction to lab-grown meats will likely be similar to the often negative reactions to and suspicions of genetically modified foods when they first came on the market. These gaps in literacy of emerging technologies hinder the successful implementation of products that could have environmental and health benefits. * hinder: 방해하다 ** implementation: 도입

In an experiment conducted by researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles, study subjects were required to give a series of unplanned speeches in front of an audience (a reliable way to trigger anxiety). Half of the participants were then asked to engage in what the researchers call "affect labeling," filling in responses to the prompt "I feel ____________," while the other half were asked to complete a neutral shape-matching task. The affect-labeling group showed steep declines in heart rate and skin conductance compared to the control group, whose levels of physiological arousal remained high. Brain-scanning studies offer further evidence of the calming effect of affect labeling: simply naming what is felt reduces activity in the amygdala, the brain structure involved in processing fear and other strong emotions. Meanwhile, thinking in a more involved way about feelings and the experiences that evoked them actually produces greater activity in the amygdala. * steep: 급격한 ** conductance: (전기나 열의) 전도도 *** amygdala: 편도체

The charts above show U.S. greenhouse gas emissions by source for the year 2020, with a particular focus on emissions from agriculture. The largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions in the United States in 2020 was transportation, accounting for over a quarter of the total U.S. emissions. The percentage of greenhouse gas emissions produced by electricity generation, which was the second-largest source in the overall emissions chart, was more than twice as high as that generated by agriculture. Industry produced a larger share of emissions than the combined total from commercial and residential sources. Meanwhile, within agricultural emissions, emissions from agricultural soil management were the most significant, contributing to half of the total agricultural emissions. Enteric fermentation was the second-largest source of agricultural emissions, producing more than twice the emissions generated by manure management. * enteric fermentation: 장내 발효 ** manure: (동물의 배설물로 만든) 거름

Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore's first prime minister, was born on September 16, 1923, and is of third-generation ethnic Chinese descent. He excelled in the Senior Cambridge examinations in 1940, earning the John Anderson Scholarship to attend Raffles College. During the prize-awarding ceremony, he met his future wife, Kwa Geok Choo, the only girl in the school. The onset of World War II in Asia disrupted Raffles College, which was converted into a medical facility in 1941. After the war, Lee chose not to return to Raffles College and pursued higher education in the United Kingdom. Initially, he enrolled at the London School of Economics but eventually studied law at Cambridge University. Lee Kuan Yew served as prime minister for 31 years, from 1959 to 1990. While his government restricted freedoms and maintained strict control over power, he also built excellent public housing, transforming Singapore into one of Asia's wealthiest countries.

Jean Baudrillard, one of the best-known French social theorists, believes that the world of culture today is based on simulation, not reality. According to Baudrillard, social life is much more a spectacle that simulates reality than reality itself. People often gain "reality" from the media, where reality is not always as it might appear. Many U.S. children, upon entering school for the first time, have already watched more hours of television than the total number of hours of classroom instruction they will encounter in their entire school careers. Add to this the number of hours that some will have spent playing computer games or surfing the Internet. Baudrillard refers to this social creation as hyperreality ― a situation where the simulation of reality is more real than the thing itself. For Baudrillard, everyday life has been captured by the signs and symbols generated to represent it, and we ultimately relate to simulations and models as if they were reality.

Things become complicated when we consider a task that involves multiple processes differing in automaticity. In a psychological task, people are required to name aloud the color of words while ignoring the words themselves. Sometimes, the words are compatible with the color with which they are printed (e.g., "red" printed with red ink). In other conditions, the words are incompatible with their color (e.g., "red" printed in blue). People usually complete this task more slowly in incompatible than compatible conditions. On incompatible trials, people do not intend to respond to the meaning of the word (the task is to name the ink color, not the word), but they typically become aware that it is easier said than done. They realize their attention is being drawn to the content of the words, despite its irrelevance to the task at hand and their intention to ignore it. To overcome this automatic draw on attention, people must assert control to report a judgment that has been made challenging by a competing automatic process. So, in this case, people are aware of an automatic process, but they cannot stop it and have difficulty correcting its influence.

If you told me that you don't like sharp cheeses, I would believe you. If you said that you don't like the texture of very soft cheeses, I would pity you, but I would believe you. But if you say that you don't like any cheese, I don't believe you because cheeses simply don't taste, look, or feel the same. What my friend dislikes is something being called "cheese." I'm sure that he had a bad cheese experience in childhood. He ate something he didn't like and learned that "cheese" is bad. With that negative attitude, he quickly rejected anything else called "cheese" (and very likely did not have a wide experience with cheeses anyway), reinforcing his belief that "cheese" is bad. As a result, this friend, who is in other respects normal, cannot bear to eat anything that he believes is called "cheese." He actually thinks that there is some flavor or property of cheese that makes it taste bad to him. But that is not the case: cheeses don't share a particular texture or flavor or source. He hates the category, not the actual stuff.

The issue of cultural variation in emotions has been controversial. At first, it was widely believed that different cultures produced radically different emotional states, so that a person from one culture could not even begin to understand what someone from another culture was feeling. This view received a severe blow from evidence that people from very different cultures could translate emotion words effectively and even recognize facial expressions of emotion. A highly influential research program by Paul Ekman and his associates began with photographs of facial expressions that Americans would easily recognize as expressing different basic emotions: angry, sad, happy, and the like. Ekman and his group traveled all over the world showing the photographs to people in widely different cultures, including even some distant tribes that had had almost no contact with Western civilization. By and large, most people in every culture recognized the emotions expressed in those American faces. These results convinced most doubters that some aspects of emotions are innate and universal. * radically: 근본적으로

Good thinkers rarely limit themselves to a single way of understanding the world. For example, when Galileo finally got around to doing some empirical studies of gravity, he was plagued by the inaccuracies of the current technology of measurement. Instead of waiting a couple of hundred years for the invention of a good stopwatch, he slowed things down by studying the behavior of bodies rolling down inclined planes. By doing so, Galileo was able to demonstrate quite convincingly that heavy and light objects "fell" at the same rate. In addition, he was able to show something more subtle and perhaps more important. Things don't simply fall at a constant rate: they constantly accelerate. Of course, accepting Galileo's conclusions requires us to make some logical inferences about the compatibility of rolling and falling, but this is exactly the point. Galileo was not simply a good logician or a good observer. One of his unique talents was his ability to blend logic and observation into a seamless set of arguments that could knock someone's socks off (and predict how quickly they would fall to the floor). * empirical: 실증적인 ** plague: 시달리게 하다 *** seamless: 아주 매끄러운

Accustomed to bargains and overwhelmed with options, consumers must have a reason to buy now. In addition to the actual product they're buying, consumers expect something more, an incentive that will give them an extra emotional charge. Customization, an event, multiple uses for the product, entertaining pop-up stores, or a great story (such as a special product heritage or theme) are more examples of plus-one incentives that result in purchases. "Do-good" products such as those that tout being environmentally conscious or supporting communities offer not just one but three plus-one purchasing incentives: a compelling and human story, rationalization, and an emotional boost for the consumer who feels altruistic while spending. For example, consumers who purchase Tom's Shoes or Walgreen's flu shots are told that their purchase will result in a pair of shoes or a flu shot being donated to someone in need through each company's one-to-one matching program. Thus, in addition to their purchase, consumers also get to see themselves in a more positive light; they feel less wary about these businesses, which have been humanized through a compelling story of need; and they have the rationalization of giving rather than spending. * tout: 크게 선전하다 ** altruistic: 이타적인 *** wary: 경계하는

Postage stamps were born bearing images of state sovereignty and authority. Taking their cue from coins and banknotes, postal officials understood that the stamps they were printing to facilitate the circulation of letters and packages among the population could also be used for a different kind of circulation: that of state imagery. Postage stamps, tiny though they were, nonetheless had space enough for the state to use them to circulate messages announcing its own supremacy. Iconic images of flags and coats of arms began to circulate on stamps, but, above all, stamps hosted portraits of the personages considered uniquely suitable to stand for the nation-state: heads of state, allegorical figures, military heroes, and other historically important men. From the beginning, then, stamps depicted state power expressed in images of exemplary personhood even as they provided ordinary people with an important means for communicating with one another. * sovereignty: 통치권 ** supremacy: 패권 *** allegorical: 우화적인

There's a difference between a story and a plot. They may seem to be the same thing (a narrative account of some action with a beginning, middle, and end), but they aren't. A story, as opposed to a plot, is the straightforward account of everything that happens in the order that it happens. A plot is the way events are selected and arranged with an emphasis not only on what happened but on why it happened. In other words, plots involve cause and effect, not just one event following another. The English novelist E. M. Forster illustrated the difference between story and plot by this example. Here's a story: The king died and then the queen died. This is a succession of events, simply organized temporally: this happened and then this happened. Here's a plot: The king died and then the queen died of grief. Events are now connected by cause and effect: the death of the king led to the death of the queen from grief. For Forster, a story asks "And then?" (X happens and then Y happens). A plot asks "Why?"

Married couples are highly motivated to empathize with one another; to do this, they mimic each other's facial expressions, which in turn facilitates similar emotional experiences. People who are on the same page get along better and are more likely to stay happily married. Over time, research confirms, this mimicry leads to permanent changes in how the face is shaped. In one study, more than a hundred volunteers were shown photographs of men and women taken in their first year of marriage and taken twenty-five years later, on the spouses' silver wedding anniversary. They were also shown photos of randomly matched pairs at the same ages. The volunteers were asked to judge the physical similarity of the couples. Sure enough, there was an increase in similarity among the married couples at the twenty-five-year mark, but not the randomly matched pairs. Most striking, the more similar people looked, the happier they reported they were in their union. So next time you are struggling to connect with your spouse, try to subtly mimic his or her facial expression; it is likely to make you feel in sync and strengthen that emotional link that can weaken in times of strife. * in sync: 화합하는 ** strife: 갈등, 다툼

In the 1960s, Richard Thompson, a neuroscientist at the University of California at Irvine, recorded the activity of single neurons in the cortex of cats while the animals were presented with series of tones or of light flashes. Some cells fired only after a certain number of events. One neuron, for instance, reacted after six events of any kind, regardless of whether this was six flashes of light, six brief tones, or six longer tones. Sensory modality did not seem to matter: The neuron apparently cared only about number. Unlike a digital computer, it did not respond in a discrete all-or-none manner, either. Rather, its activation level grew after the fifth item, reached a peak for the sixth, and decreased for larger numbers of items. Several similar cells, each tuned to a different number, were recorded in a small area of the cat's cortex. * discrete: 명확하게 구분되는 ** cortex: 대뇌피질 *** modality: 양상, 양식

Information technology can play an important role in both bringing communities together and splitting them apart. On the one hand, IT has the potential to increase shared information and norms across larger groups. For instance, in the 1960s, most Americans got their news from one of three national television networks and a small number of other publications. If Walter Cronkite, a famous American broadcast journalist, said it, many Americans believed it was true. That almost certainly helped spread more shared norms across a country that previously had strong regional differences. But in the 2016 presidential election, many Americans got their news from social networking sites and other online media that created highly tailored news feeds for each individual. If you had liberal friends and interests, you were rarely exposed to conservative news outlets, and vice versa. In a community where each subgroup saw a different set of facts about the world and had a different value system for interpreting those facts, the shared norms needed for the overall community to function effectively were greatly weakened. In a sense, the United States seemed to be fragmenting into two separate communities. * fragment: 분열되다

Animals often compete: over food, a mate, a territory, or some other resource. But rather than jump immediately to physical fighting, individuals typically engage in nonaggressive communicative displays, like the roaring of red deer, the "jousting" displays of stalk-eyed flies, the croaking of European toads, or the loud "wahoo" calls of male baboons. Ethologists now have a good understanding of how these displays have evolved ― that is, why they are evolutionarily stable. In red deer, for example, roaring is energetically costly, so only males in good physical condition can roar repeatedly, for long durations. Moreover, the acoustic features of a male's roar are constrained by his body size, so only large males can produce deep-pitched roars. And larger males are more successful fighters. As a consequence, a male's roaring cannot be faked ― because small males and males in poor condition cannot produce low-pitched roars at a high rate ― and roaring serves as an honest indicator of size, condition, and competitive ability. * joust: (말을 타고 창을 든 채) 결투하다 ** croak: (개구리가) 개굴개굴 울다 *** ethologist: 동물행동학자 _ Animals use displays to avoid physical fights, as these signals accurately reflect physical condition and size, making them reliable evolutionary indicators of competitive strength.

To demonstrate how our minds have adapted, consider a typical high school task: writing a research paper. Baby Boomers most likely went to their local library, searched card catalogues, took longhand notes, and painstakingly typed their papers on a typewriter. Their challenge was in finding information. They memorized things like how to spell words, because reference materials weren't readily available and the process of checking was time consuming. And they were careful and precise when typing ― correcting took time. Baby Boomer brains were trained to focus, pay attention to detail, be patient, and have mental strength. Haste meant waste. Fast-forward to today. The Baby Boomer challenge of finding information is less relevant ― information is extremely accessible. Memorization and precision are less essential as well ― it's easy to check facts and spelling. This means that those brain activities don't get the workout today that they did for previous generations of high school students. Today's young brains are heavily focused on scanning and processing mountains of information. Their brains are trained for speed. But it's not only the young who are increasingly addicted to speed. Their saturation in and early use of technology makes them highly tuned to require more stimulation and become more easily bored ― but everyone's brains are changing. We're all less patient and less able to focus, and we all want things faster. It's no wonder we've replaced the word "trend" with "trending." We barely alight on a new idea long enough for it to be a trend; it's just zipping by or "trending." * saturation: 충분히 배어들기, 침투 ** alight: 내려앉다 *** zip by: 핑 소리를 내며 지나가다

Dear Customer Service, I am writing with regard to my recent furniture order. Last Saturday, I visited your Springfield showroom and purchased an oak desk along with two three-drawer filing cabinets for my study. However, when I returned home this evening, I found that my order had been delivered in my absence, and the cabinets were not what I ordered. Instead of the three-drawer style, I received the four-drawer version. Unfortunately, due to limited space, I am unable to accommodate the taller cabinets, which makes them unsuitable for my needs. I kindly request that you arrange for the wrong cabinets to be picked up and replaced with the correct three-drawer models as soon as possible. Please contact me at your earliest convenience to schedule the exchange. I would appreciate your prompt attention to this matter, as I need the right cabinets to properly organize my files. Best regards, John Smith

Light streamed into Emily's eyes as she stirred awake, stretching with a contented sigh. Hugging her pillow, she smiled ― her cousin's house was just as cozy as hers, and everything felt wonderfully familiar. The usual morning sounds of Rosewood filled the air: the dog barking and the garbage truck passing by with a low, steady sound. Memories of last night's party with her cousins danced through her mind, bringing a soft smile to her face. Then, a strange scent hung in the air ― something earthy and sharp, like hay mixed with something unfamiliar. Emily frowned and sensed that something was not right. As she turned her head, her breath caught. Aunt Helene stood in the doorway. Emily blinked, unsure if she was still dreaming. Aunt Helene was supposed to be traveling. She couldn't understand why Aunt Helene was here. "You're up," Helene said. "Come downstairs." Emily was so shaken that she couldn't say anything. Emily's body was moving down the stairs, but her mind was still trying to catch up with what just happened. * frown: 얼굴을 찌푸리다

Society makes a pedagogical mistake when it emphasizes obtaining the so-called "right answer" rather than asking the "right" question, or at least, a good question. The so-called "good student" is viewed as the one who rapidly provides the right answers to questions teachers ask. On this view, the expert in a given field unfortunately becomes an extension of the so-called "expert student" ― the one who knows and can quickly spit back a lot of information. As John Dewey believed, how one thinks about issues often is more important and consequential in life than exactly what one thinks. Schools should teach students how to ask important questions (questions that are worth answering and that are interesting) and reduce their emphasis on rote learning of facts. And they need to reorient their emphases in diverse domains, not just in the arts. Contemporary creativity research embraces a wide variety of distinct domains, from science to engineering to business to architectural design to the arts to athletics, all of which are ready for creative investigation. * pedagogical: 교육상의, 교육의 ** consequential: 중대한 *** rote learning: 암기식 학습

The combination of geometrical regularity and keen observation of nature is characteristic of all Egyptian art. We can study it best in the reliefs and paintings that adorned the walls of the tombs. The word 'adorned', it is true, may hardly fit an art which was meant to be seen by no one but the dead man's soul. In fact, these works were not intended to be enjoyed. They were meant to 'keep alive'. Once, in a dark distant past, it had been the custom when a powerful man died to let his servants and slaves accompany him into the grave so that he should arrive in the beyond with a suitable suite. They were sacrificed. Later, these horrors were considered either too cruel or too costly, and art came to the rescue. Instead of real servants, the great ones of this earth were given images as substitutes. The pictures and models found in Egyptian tombs were connected with the idea of providing the souls with helpmates in the other world. * relief: 부조(재료의 한쪽 면에만 형상을 새긴 것) ** adorn: 장식하다 *** suite: 수행원, 일행

When thinking of fashion as clothing and accessories, it is hard not to see it as an item, an object we purchase and use, and an object that, inevitably, is made of something ― for one cannot think of fashion items without thinking of their materiality. Nevertheless, such materiality is inconceivable if not as a performance. Fashion is fabric, sartorial design, and the set of inventions and innovations that punctuate its history ― none of these are static. The study of fabrics and pattern designs runs parallel to and complements the very study of our cultures and traditions. It is a matter, somewhat poetically, of dressing history, of giving it colors and design. The fabrics in which fashion items are made populate our cultural heritage: they remind us of traditions and rituals. They are even at times signs of economic change ― nylon after the Second World War, sustainable fabrics nowadays. In many ways, the study of the material counterpart of fashion becomes a study of collective identity, of global trends, of the growth and evolution of societies ― from the past to the present to the future. * sartorial: 의류의 ** static: 정적인

Gen Z became the first generation in history to go through puberty with a portal in their pockets that called them away from the people nearby and into an alternative universe that was exciting, addictive, unstable, and unsuitable for children and adolescents. Succeeding socially in that universe required them to devote a large part of their consciousness ― perpetually ― to managing what became their online brand. This was now necessary to gain acceptance from peers, which is the oxygen of adolescence, and to avoid online shaming, which is the nightmare of adolescence. Gen Z teens got sucked into spending many hours of each day scrolling through the shiny happy posts of friends, acquaintances, and distant influencers. They watched increasing quantities of user-generated videos and streamed entertainment, offered to them by autoplay and algorithms that were designed to keep them online as long as possible. They spent far less time playing with, talking to, touching, or even making eye contact with their friends and families, thereby reducing their participation in embodied social behaviors that are essential for successful human development. * perpetually: 끊임없이 ** acquaintance: 지인, 아는 사람

The philosopher and statesman Francis Bacon couched the efforts of his peers to understand the world, whether it is the workings of an organ or movements of the heavens, in terms of the spiders and the ants, where the former use reason and the latter rely on experiment. Importantly, Bacon realised that a blend of both skills ― as performed by the bees ― was necessary for what today we call science: like these busy little insects, worker scientists harvest data from experiments so that their minds can transform them into fruitful information. In his evocative writing, one can see an outline of how science still works: reason guides experiment, which paves the way for new reasoning and then new experiments. With his metaphor of the bee, Bacon had rejected the approaches of the ant, which depended on radical empiricism (data without reason), and of the spider, which relied on rationalism (reason without data), in his quest for knowledge. * couch: 설명하다 ** evocative: (긍정적 반응을 일으킬 만큼) 인상적인 *** empiricism: 경험[실증]주의

The graph above presents the percentage of weekday trips made by three types of transportation ― cars, public transport, and walking or biking ― in multiple subregions of the Americas, Europe, and Asia in 2024. In the Americas, North America showed an overwhelming reliance on cars at 92%, which was more than three times the rate in South America. In Northern, Western, and Southern Europe, cars were the most commonly used means of transportation with the usage of public transport sitting at less than one-third of the total. In Eastern Europe, like the rest of Europe, people relied less on walking or biking rather than on cars. Cars were used by fewer than 20% of people in Eastern Asia, while walking or biking was used by fewer than 20% in Southeastern Asia. Public transport, however, was used by more than 40% of people in both Eastern and Southeastern Asia.

Thomas Wiggins, also known as 'Blind Tom,' was a remarkable pianist and composer born in 1849 in Georgia, USA. Born blind and enslaved, he displayed extraordinary musical talent from an early age. Wiggins could reproduce complex melodies after hearing them only once, earning recognition as a prodigy. He was also known for his ability to mimic sounds from nature and the environment, such as birdsong and trains, incorporating them into his performances. Despite his disability and the harsh conditions of slavery, he was taken on tour by his enslaver, and his performances astonished audiences across the United States and Europe. Wiggins composed over 100 pieces, blending classical, folk, and popular influences. His most famous work, 'The Battle of Manassas,' vividly depicts the sounds of the Civil War. After emancipation, he continued to perform, but exploitation by his handlers continued. Despite this, Wiggins became one of the most celebrated musicians of the 19th century. He passed away in 1908, leaving behind a legacy of human potential in the face of adversity. * prodigy: 신동 ** emancipation: 노예 해방 *** exploitation: 착취

A variety of linguistic expressions convey the ideas centrally linked with the concept of true self. People are said to have integrity when their actions appear to express what they truly feel and value, and this quality of integrity, cross-culturally, seems to engender trust and respect. The etymology of the term integrity derives from the Latin "integer," meaning that integrity expresses wholeness and entirety. Nor are such expressions limited to Western cultures. Japanese language, for example, contains the word jibun, which is sometimes translated as "true self" and conveys a deeper self that must be discovered which facilitates one's health and connections with others. Similarly, Takeo Doi pointed out the awareness among Japanese of potential discrepancies between inner sensibilities and outward presentation, as illustrated by the existence of complementary terms such as tatemae/honne. Kim-Chong Chong similarly highlights related conceptions within Confucian philosophy. Clearly, concern with authenticity or the true self of others is present in varied cultural contexts. * integrity: 진실성 ** etymology: 어원 *** discrepancy: 차이

In many ways, the Internet has accelerated people's notion that the truth is relative. As Anna Kata argues, the Internet has facilitated a postmodern paradigm of truth in which expert consensus is delegitimized and personal values and experiences are treated the same as scientific evidence. Within this new paradigm, Kata notes, everyone is considered an expert and truth is "flattened," as each perspective and view of the facts is represented as legitimate, with evidence from legitimate experts considered one of multiple opinions. The changing nature of what is considered true is problematic in terms of misperceptions, as people are increasingly exposed to online discussions and debates about what is true. If extremely inaccurate evidence, personal experiences, or the words of charlatans are presented and considered alongside evidence from scientific consensus without consideration of validity based on evidence, it becomes more difficult for people to determine which information is legitimate and true. Furthermore, online postmodern discourses often shift the standards of evidence to suit participants' arguments, making it more likely that people will become confused about the facts and ultimately misinformed. * delegitimize: 위신을 실추시키다 ** charlatan: 사기꾼, 돌팔이

Researchers need to be aware that subjects' behavior may change simply because they are getting special attention, as one classic experiment revealed. In the late 1930s, the Western Electric Company hired researchers to investigate worker productivity in its Hawthorne factory near Chicago. One experiment tested the hypothesis that increasing the available lighting would raise worker output. First, researchers measured worker productivity or output (the dependent variable). Then they increased the lighting (the independent variable) and measured output a second time. Productivity had gone up, a result that supported the hypothesis. But when the research team later turned the lighting back down, productivity increased again. What was going on? In time, the researchers realized that the employees were working harder (even if they could not see as well) simply because people were focusing on them and measuring their output. From this research, social scientists coined the term Hawthorne effect to refer to a change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied.

While the content of radio, television, or the internet might be a football game or a political debate, the message ― in McLuhan's terms ― of each of these media is not that. The message is instead equal to the social changes that a medium generates. McLuhan wrote that 'the "message" of any medium or technology is the change of scale or pace or pattern that it introduces into human affairs'. He also argued that the content of a medium is always another medium: the content of television might be the medium of a theatrical play, the medium of football, and so on. He wanted to make the point that by just studying the content, we risk becoming entangled in this spiral of media within media within media. It was therefore better, he thought, to instead focus on understanding media in terms of the ways in which they transform the social. * entangled: (~에) 빠져든, 말려든 ** spiral: 소용돌이

Language is a cultural resource available for people to use. We do things with words, as the philosopher J. L. Austin reminded us decades ago. Even when we speak or write to ourselves, our very choices of words, as well as our underlying intentions and desires, are influenced by the social contexts in which we have seen, heard, or experienced those words, intentions, and desires before. Linguistic anthropologists, therefore, maintain that the essence of language cannot be understood without reference to the particular social contexts in which it is used. But those contexts do not stand apart from linguistic practices or somehow "contain" them, as a soup bowl would contain soup. Rather, social contexts and linguistic practices mutually constitute each other. For this reason, language should be studied, Alessandro Duranti writes, "not only as a mode of thinking but, above all, as a cultural practice, that is, as a form of action that both presupposes and at the same time brings about ways of being in the world."

For evolution to work, selection needs to be ― as the term suggests ― selective. This means that selection needs to be based on an individual life form's properties and not on a whole population of life forms. It is not enough that a change improves the ability for a life form to survive. It needs to improve the life form's likelihood of survival relative to other life forms. For example, if a life form has a mutation that produces chemicals that speed up the process of procreation but distributes these chemicals among all other life forms, every life form nearby profits, no matter whether they had the beneficial mutation or not. This is similar to the situation in an economy. Money, status, or reputation is given preferably to those people and companies that have methods more adapted to the environment (the market). A well-run restaurant with better service will attract more customers than a poorly run restaurant. If, at the end of the day, the better restaurant had to share its earnings with all other restaurants, it might have a harder time "evolving" and expanding its business. * mutation: 돌연변이 ** procreation: 생식

Fashion retailers are becoming more innovative in addressing the increasing returns issue, including the implementation of reverse logistics strategies, by which returns are channelled through the most cost-effective route. One example of this is the introduction of dedicated in-store areas, supported by advanced AI technology, for both online and offline returns and the collection of online orders. An advantage of this is that online customers, going into a store to process a free return, may be tempted to make additional purchases while there. Improved technology is also being used to allow online customers to virtually try on products to check fit and suitability prior to purchase. Omni-channel initiatives, such as these, should improve both operating profit margins and customer satisfaction, reducing the financial risk posed by the increasing rate of returns. * retailer: 소매업체 ** logistics: 물류 관리

How water is used is unique to the resource. Oil is completely consumed when it is used, especially if it is burned to provide energy. This also means that the amount of oil consumed by one user is not available for someone else. In contrast, much water use is sequential, and it is not often fully consumed by the first user. For example, the water contained in a river may be extracted by many users as it flows from the upper watershed to its eventual end in a floodplain or ocean. Water may be withdrawn from the river by upstream users, through pumping, diversion and other methods of extraction, but there can also be a lot of return flow of water back to the river during upstream use. This return flow to the river is then available for other users further downstream. In fact, some uses of water, such as hydroelectric power generation, transportation and recreation, do not require any withdrawals of surface water. Water for these purposes is neither withdrawn from the source nor consumed. * diversion: (방향) 전환[바꾸기] ** sequential: 순차적인 *** hydroelectric: 수력 전기의

In some cases, objects are members of the same category not because they are highly similar in appearance but because they serve similar functions. For example, planes, trains, and automobiles do not look very similar to each other, but they are all means of transportation. In still other cases, exemplars become associated because they have some connection to each other based on some higher meaning. Attending church, donating money to a faith-based charity, and bowing one's head before meals are very different specific behavioral acts, and it is not immediately apparent that they serve the same function. All of them, though, are excellent exemplars that reflect the individual's religiosity. The concept of religiosity provides a meaning structure that ties these behaviors together in a single category simply because they are different manifestations of the same underlying concept. Thus, categories need to have some explanatory function. A category is more than a set of elements that are grouped based merely on perceived similarities and differences; a category is also a theory that gives some account for why these elements, but not other elements, are included in the category. This explanation provides the "glue" that holds the category together. * religiosity: 종교성

The wealth-health question illustrates the most irresistible thinking error made by both amateur and professional social psychologists: When two factors such as wealth and health go together, it is tempting to conclude that one causes the other. Wealth, we might presume, somehow protects a person from health risks. But maybe it's the other way around: Perhaps healthy people are more likely to succeed economically, or people who live longer have more time to accumulate wealth. A third variable might also cause both health and wealth ― for example, perhaps those of a certain race or religion are both healthier and more likely to become wealthy. In other words, correlations indicate a relationship, but that relationship is not necessarily one of cause and effect. Correlational research allows us to roughly predict one variable from another, but it cannot tell us whether one variable (such as wealth) causes another (such as health). When two variables (let's call them X and Y) are correlated with each other, there are three possibilities: X causes Y, Y causes X, or a third variable (Z) causes both.

Literacy has become an increasingly complex issue in the twenty-first century because of the development of technology. With the popularity of social media and mobile applications, written and spoken communication genres often merge and become indistinguishable. As suggested by Caroline Tagg, text and talk merge in modern communication. With the immediacy of communication enabled by technology, the distinction between formal, pre-planned written communication and the more casual, immediate spoken communication is eroded, whether in social or workplace contexts. The difference in language style between the two modes of communication has also become less conspicuous. Text messages on mobile devices and social media are basically a kind of written communication. However, because of the immediacy of the communication, they have assumed characteristics of spoken communication, such as more casual/informal communication style, with less emphasis on planning and less compliance with typical genre features. Features of spoken communication can often be found in these written texts which are in fact a type of textual spoken communication. * erode: 약화시키다 ** conspicuous: 뚜렷한 *** compliance: 준수

The context of children's exposure to regional variation of a language may play a role in how it is interpreted for social meaning. Kinzler and DeJesus conducted a study of five- and six-year-old children in the Northern and Southern U.S., and found that they were not equally able to identify or assign social evaluations to those regional accents. Children from the North, where the more prestigious dialect is spoken, could reliably identify it and showed social preferences for speakers with a Northern accent. Children living in the Southern U.S., where a less prestigious regional variety is predominately spoken, were at chance when identifying the varieties, and showed no social preferences for either accent. The crucial difference is that Southern children typically have exposure to both Northern and Southern accents whereas Northern children would mainly have exposure to the Northern accent. In this context, hearing multiple regional varieties did not give children an advantage in awareness of regional variation. * prestigious: 권위 있는, 명망 있는 _ Children's exposure to regional accents can influence their interpretations of those accents, with Northern U.S. children showing a preference for their more respected dialect, while Southern U.S. children, exposed to both Northern and Southern accents, showed neither awareness of nor preference for dialect variation.

The rootedness of plants, their insistence on staying in place, means that plant morphologies record biographies of encounter. Humans, fires, diseases, weather, soils, plants, and animals can all leave traces in plant morphologies. Long-lived trees, in particular, can be witnesses to history. Through their capacity to live for centuries, trees can inspire people into caring for processes that stretch beyond human lifetimes. Through their affinity for deep soils and moisture, short-lived domesticated plants have also persuaded humans to reshape landscapes, from cornfields in Iowa to wheat fields in Tuscany. The gardens, agricultural fields, and the terracing and drainage systems that surround us are the visible consequences of human love, dependency, and exploitation of plants. Much of the time we fail to notice what a plant-centered world we live in. Learning to notice plant ingenuity requires us to slow down, to walk, look, and wonder, to realize that what we took for granted is much stranger than we had imagined. The botanist Francis Hall_ points out that one way to slow down and notice the strangeness of plants is through drawings of plant form: "It is as if we were visiting a distant planet and encountered a form of alien life with which we share no language ― a form of life based upon principles not our own. If we wish to understand this creature, it is best not to rush." * morphology: 형태, 형태학 ** affinity: 좋아하는 성질 *** ingenuity: 독창성

Dear parents, I am writing to request your assistance in protecting our most vulnerable students. Respiratory viruses such as the flu can spread quickly in a school setting. Protecting the health and well-being of our students and staff is our top priority. By working together, we can help ensure a safe and productive school year for everyone. Some of our students have serious autoimmune conditions, making them more at risk for infections. To help protect all students, we kindly ask that you notify the school if your child has been diagnosed with any of respiratory illnesses. Because doctor's notes for excused absences often do not specify the illness, providing this information directly to the school allows us to take appropriate measures to prevent further spread. Please be assured that your child's personal information will be kept strictly private. Thank you for your cooperation and support. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me. Sincerely, Kelli Garza Harrington High School Principal * vulnerable: 취약한 ** respiratory: 호흡기의 *** autoimmune: 자가 면역의

At the violin competition, my hands shook slightly as I stepped onto the stage. It had been years since I last performed on stage, and every eye in the room seemed fixed on me, pressing down with silent weight. I held the violin tightly, uncertain of how the first note would sound. Then, as I looked down, the polished surface caught a faint reflection ― my father's face, just as I remembered. In that moment, something settled. I thought of the quiet evenings when he sat beside me during practice, gently nodding in rhythm. His presence was steady and unwavering. I drew in a slow breath and raised the violin to my chin, anchoring it against my shoulder. The bow paused just above the strings, then touched down with purpose. My grip steadied, and with each movement that followed, I played Pachelbel's Canon in D ― no longer hesitating, but sure and measured from the first note on. * unwavering: 흔들림 없는

One myth in journalism was that independence required journalists to be neutral. This confusion arose when the concept of objectivity became so mangled it began to be used to describe the very problem it was conceived to correct. What we need to do now is recapture the original meaning of objectivity intended when the concept migrated from social science to journalism early in the twentieth century. Objectivity was not meant to suggest that journalists were without bias. On the contrary, precisely because journalists could never be objective, their methods had to be. In the recognition that everyone is biased, in other words, the news, like science, should flow from a process for reporting that is defensible, rigorous, and transparent ― and this process is even more critical in a networked age. Today, when content comes from so many sources, this concept of objectivity of method transparently conveyed ― rather than personal objectivity ― is more vital than ever. * mangled: 훼손된 ** rigorous: 엄격한 *** transparent: 투명한

Without bark, a tree cannot transport sugar from its leaves to its roots. As the roots starve, they shut down their pumping mechanisms, and because water no longer flows through the trunk up to the crown, the whole tree dries out. However, many of the girdled trees continued to grow with more or less vigor. I now know that this was only possible with the help of intact neighboring trees. Thanks to the underground network, neighbors took over the disrupted task of provisioning the roots and thus made it possible for their buddies to survive. Some trees even managed to bridge the gap in their bark with new growth. I have learned from this just how powerful a community of trees can be. "A chain is only as strong as its weakest link." Trees could have come up with this old craftsperson's saying. And because they know this intuitively, they do not hesitate to help each other out. * girdle: (나무껍질을) 고리 모양으로 벗겨 내다 ** intact: 온전한

There are a growing number of AI tools that companies use to screen job applicants. These automated systems decide which smaller set of applicants from a large pool will reach a human hiring manager. The AI tool analyzes video interviews for content, word choice, facial expressions, and so on, assigning each interviewee an "employability score," which is compared to those of other applicants. But the validity of these tools is dubious; in fact, there is no evidence that these scores accurately predict job performance. Critics worry that algorithms trained on limited data will be more likely to give higher employability scores to typical applicants who are more frequently represented in the current workforce and give lower scores to those who appear atypical because they are less frequently represented in the current workforce. The result would be to reinforce current demographic imbalances instead of building a diverse workforce. Put differently, these automated technological tools seem to be reproducing biased wallpaper in hiring decisions. And, in fact, the technology may even be magnifying bias in new ways. * dubious: 의심스러운 ** atypical: 비전형적인 *** demographic: 인구 통계학의

Scientific research is hard. Reaching the stage of becoming an independent and productive researcher able to pursue one's interests requires a long period of study followed by more years of apprenticeship. Even after that it requires long hours and often repetitive detailed work with little chance of obtaining wealth and glory, except for a tiny number who obtain Nobel prizes and the like, and even for them the fame is often short-lived. The respect and approval of the small community of their peers is often their main reward. So why do they do it? Almost all do it because of an intense curiosity, the desire to understand how the world works. Many because it promises to be able to solve important problems and make the world a better place. Yet others go into it because it is intellectually stimulating and rewarding, and has the promise of prestige, a good career, and a modestly comfortable lifestyle. When it comes to individual scientists, there will likely be a range of overlapping motivations for their choice. * apprenticeship: 견습 (기간) ** prestige: 명성

As Michael Patrick Lynch observes in his book The Internet of Us: Knowing More and Understanding Less in the Age of Big Data, the information we derive from making correlations with big data often can be misleading unless we understand its context. He cites the example of a famous video map of cultural history that was created by using a data set of births and deaths of "notable" people over the past two thousand years. The shape and findings of the map were entirely dependent on the creators' assumptions of their data's parameters, including what constitutes a "notable" person. In other words, the answers we get are only as meaningful as the questions we frame. And for that, we need an understanding not just of correlations but of how and why the facts are so. Instead of seeing strands of information, we need to view the interconnected tapestry of relationships in a system. Thus, it is not enough to see that "culture" spread to different geographical hotspots in a particular pattern. We would need to study the social, economic, and political contexts. The purpose of data literacy, then, is to give us the tools to read the digital record and also to understand when we ought to look elsewhere. * parameter: 매개 변수, 특성값 ** strand: 가닥, 부분 *** tapestry: 태피스트리(복합적 직조물)

The graph above shows work location trends from 2019 to 2024 among U.S. remote-capable employees and their expected and preferred location afterward. In 2019, exclusively remote work showed the lowest percentage, at only 8% of U.S. remote-capable employees, while on-site work showed the highest, at 60%. The situation changed in 2020, when exclusively remote work peaked, reaching 70% of remote-capable employees, while on-site work dropped sharply to below 20%. In 2022, hybrid work became the most dominant work arrangement, yet exclusively remote work still made up over a third of the remote-capable employees. From 2023 to 2024, exclusively remote work declined, while hybrid work increased slightly by 2%. Looking forward to the future, hybrid work is expected to continue to be the most prominent option in both expectations and preferences, with a rate of over 50%, followed by exclusively remote and then on-site work.

William James was born in New York City into a wealthy and intellectual family. His father was an unusual theologian, and his brother, Henry James, became a well-known novelist. During his childhood, William spent several years in Europe, where he developed a passion for painting. However, at 19, he abandoned art to study science. He enrolled at Harvard Medical School, but his studies were interrupted by health issues and depression, which prevented him from ever practicing medicine. Despite these challenges, he graduated and, in 1872, began teaching physiology at Harvard University. Over time, his interest shifted toward psychology and philosophy, leading to influential publications in both fields. In 1880, he was appointed a professor of philosophy at Harvard, where he made significant contributions to pragmatism and functional psychology. His works, including The Principles of Psychology and Pragmatism, remain highly influential. He taught at Harvard until his retirement in 1907. * theologian: 신학자 ** physiology: 생리학 *** pragmatism: 실용주의

Ecosystem structure refers to the individuals and communities of plants and animals of which an ecosystem is composed, their age and spatial distribution, and the abiotic resources. Most ecosystems have thousands of structural elements, each exhibiting varying degrees of complexity. Scientists have learned that when enough separate elements are thrown together into a complex system, a sort of spontaneous order results. One property of such systems is their tendency to generate emergent phenomena, which can be defined as properties of the whole that could not be predicted from an understanding of the individual parts, no matter how detailed that understanding. Complex systems are also characterized by highly nonlinear behavior, which means that we cannot predict the outcomes of large interventions based on an understanding of smaller ones. For example, removing 40% of a species stock from an ecosystem may have a qualitatively different impact than removing 20% ― that is, not just twice the known impact of removing 20%. * spatial: 공간의 ** abiotic: 비생물의 *** emergent: [생물] 창발적인(개별 요소에서는 볼 수 없는 새로운 성질이 나타나는)

When people are relieved of the cognitive load imposed by their environment, they immediately become more creative, neuroscientist Moshe Bar has found. Bar, who directs the Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center at Bar-Ilan University in Israel, reports that when he taxed subjects' mental resources as they completed a test of creative thinking, they came up with more "statistically common" (that is, conventional and commonplace) associations. In his study, Bar found that "a high mental load consistently diminished the originality and creativity" of his subjects' responses. His explanation: when our minds are otherwise occupied, we resort to mental shortcuts ― convenient stereotypes, familiar assumptions, well-worn grooves. These are the thoughts that come most readily to mind, that take the least mental energy to generate. It requires abundant cognitive resources to inhibit these stale, reflexive responses and to reach beyond them for ideas that are fresher and more original. * cognitive: 인지적인 ** groove: 습관, 관례 *** stale: 진부한

Is morality unique to human beings? Not entirely. Other species seem to have some understanding of fairness, especially when one individual's rights or wishes have been thwarted. Only human beings seem to have morality based in the collectivity, however. As social psychologist Jonathan Haidt pointed out, only human beings show "widespread third party norm enforcement." That is, people will expend their own or community resources to fight immorality even if they were not themselves the victims. They seem to recognize that maintaining morality is a generally good thing even when they are not directly affected. No other animal does this. If one dog steals a bone from another dog, the loser may protest and may even be said to have some moral sense that the stealing was wrong. But you will not see a third dog intervene to force the first dog to return the bone to the second. Only cultural animals use morality as a property of the larger society. * thwart: 좌절시키다

For some organisations, filing in triplicate ― a widely used system of classification that creates three copies of each document to distribute and store in different places ― may be unavoidable. For most of us, such a system is a huge waste of time, space, and energy. If you need to file physical documents, what about the following beautiful alternative, invented by Japanese economist Yukio Noguchi? Forget about categories. Instead, place each incoming document in a large envelope. Write the envelope's contents neatly on its edge and line them up on a bookshelf, their contents visible like the spines of books. Now the moment of genius: every time you use an envelope, place it back on the left of the shelf. Over time, recently used documents will shuffle themselves towards the left and never-used documents will accumulate on the right. Archiving is easy: every now and again, you remove the documents on the right. To find any document, simply ask yourself how recently you've seen it. It is a filing system that all but organises itself, and it has won many fans. * spine: (책의) 등 ** shuffle: 정리하다 *** archive: (파일 등을) 보관하다

The ability to act on our thoughts and feelings requires the coordination of positive and negative solidarity. It used to be the case that women were denied the right to vote and African Americans were denied access to certain institutions. Positive solidarity reflects positive freedoms, such as the right to do as you please, and it functions in tandem with negative solidarity, which reflects negative freedoms or restrictions that protect freedom. In order for women to vote and African Americans to eat at whatever restaurant they choose (a positive freedom), others who desired to restrict these activities had to be restrained (a negative freedom). Once a particular negative freedom becomes a habit or norm, people tend to take it for granted that a given behavior by others is acceptable. The bottom line is that people are not simply free to do as they please. Freedom requires mutual agreement to a set of conditions that basically involve taking turns. Freedom ― like separate, different, and individual ― has little meaning without others. * solidarity: 연대 ** in tandem with: ~과 함께

The claim that there are basic needs that are inherent and universal features of the psyche requires, first and foremost, evidence of the generalizability of those needs across individuals and cultures. It does not, however, depend on the claim that all individuals or cultural groups will equally value, satisfy, or recognize needs or that all individuals are equally well equipped to attain need fulfillments. The vehicles through which psychological needs are expressed and satisfied differ at different ages and in different cultures and societies, and yet across these contextualizing variables their functional necessity is unchanging. This conceptualization has been supported in various ways. For example, recently Chen, Vansteenkiste, and their colleagues measured basic need satisfactions and need frustrations in multiple cultures, as well as differences in desires for these satisfactions. As expected, they demonstrated that the need variables predict important wellness outcomes across cultures. More relevant here was that they also showed that desires for these need satisfactions did not moderate these relations with wellness; desired or not, need satisfactions mattered. * psyche: 마음 ** moderate: 완화하다

The use of social media can be very powerful in the pursuit of a healthy lifestyle and holds special opportunities for health promotion leaders and organizations. Progressive health promotion organizations have recognized the value in maintaining a presence on social media because an increasing number of individuals use social media as a primary form of communication. Organizations use these media to attract new clients, disseminate information in a timely manner, and inspire clients and the public with messages of encouragement, praise, and recognition. Social media is also used as an excellent tool to connect individuals with each other based on common characteristics such as shared health challenges, activity preferences, geographic locations, and so on. The use of tools that help to connect people holds special value because we understand the benefit of positive personal relationships and the feeling of belonging to like-minded groups of people striving to develop and maintain healthy lifestyles. * disseminate: 전파하다

Even a seemingly simple protocol such as greeting someone is coded socially. It is shaped by appropriate words, phrases, and nonverbal cues that will enable a speaker to make successful social contact with another speaker. Consider, for the sake of argument, a simple greeting protocol such as "Hi!" As such, it reveals the kind of coded behavior that is relevant in the society in which it occurs, since there are other societies in which silence or a simple nod of the head may be more appropriate as a protocol. Also, the shortened word rather than the full word "Hello!" implies a social relation of a specific kind (informal) between the interlocutors, implying as well that they are involved in similar life schemes, which impel them to make contact in this ritualistic way. Unconscious factors such as these are imprinted in that one simple protocol, thus connecting it to larger frames of meaning and interaction. These frames are coded socially ― they constitute ways of relating to others and to oneself. The information exchanged in that one protocol, therefore, goes well beyond a greeting. As this example shows in microcosm, social codes derive from traditions and are taught via rearing practices. * microcosm: 축소판 ** interlocutor: 대화자 *** impel: 해야만 하게 하다

The phrase "I have nothing to hide" has become popular in discussions about social media companies that collect all of the personal data they can get their hands on. You might hear it from users who prefer to pay with their data, not with their money. And the phrase could well hold true for those of us who live uneventful lives without any serious health issues, have never made any potential enemies, and wouldn't speak up on civil rights denied by a government. Yet the issue is not about hiding or the freedom to post pictures of adorable kittens at no cost. Tech companies don't care whether or not you have something to hide. Rather, because you don't spend any money for their services, they have to employ psychological tricks to get you to spend as much time as possible on their apps. You are not the customer; the customers are the advertisers who pay tech companies to grab your attention. Many of us have become glued to our smartphones, find hardly any time for anything else, and eagerly await another dopamine shot via each new 'like'. * adorable: 사랑스러운

Sport fans can develop a psychological attachment to sports, teams, and players. This connection can assist fans to develop a feeling of being strong, important, and successful. The term vicarious achievement refers to a sense of accomplishment that is felt secondhand, through the success of someone else. Some fans may experience an increase in self-esteem when their team is winning. Others may feel a sense of confidence and skillfulness by learning team statistics and club history. Given that sport fans feel successful when their team is successful, the reverse occurs when they must deal with the disappointment of scandals and poor team performances. In these situations, fans may be a little less eager to publicly announce their support of the team, and they might even downplay the failure of the team. Fans can compensate for a team's poor performance by developing strong feelings of closeness with fellow fans, being critical of other successful teams, voicing criticism of umpiring or refereeing decisions, or by being blindly optimistic that things will get better. * vicarious: 대리의 ** downplay: 대단치 않게 생각하다

As we go through life, our brains seem to create a very temporary record of much or all of what we sense in our immediate environment. They do so through several sense-specific areas of the brain that might collectively be called a sensory register. For example, if you have ever played with a lighted sparkler on a festive holiday evening ― as many people in the United States do on July 4th ― then you've undoubtedly noticed the tail of light that follows the sparkler as you swish it about. That tail of light isn't "out there" in your environment; instead, this is your sensory register at work, telling you where the light has very recently been. And think about what happens when you find yourself daydreaming during a classroom lecture. As you mentally tune back in to what your instructor is saying, you might still be able to mentally "hear" the words that the instructor said within the preceding two or three seconds. As is true for the sparkler's tail, those words aren't lingering in the air around you; they're in your head ― more specifically, in your sensory register. * swish: 빠르게 휘젓다 ** linger: 남다

The children of genius parents are probably going to be less intelligent than their moms and dads. A week of record-breaking heat or cold is likely to be followed by milder weather. These facts follow directly from the nature of numbers, but people do not appreciate the statistical basis and instead tend to formulate special causal explanations. During a dry spell, if you do a rain dance every day, sooner or later the rain will come ― and you may be tempted to think that your rain dance did the trick. (The illusion works especially well if you change your rain dance a bit each day, when it didn't work, so that when it finally rains, you think, At last, I got it right!) Medicine and psychotherapy thrive on regression to the mean. Whenever you feel bad, the odds are that you will feel better in a few days, and if you visit a physician in the interim, you will probably give her credit for your improvement. (And the doctor probably will be willing to accept your gratitude!) * thrive: 번성하다 ** regression: 회귀 *** interim: 사이, 중간 기간 _ People often attribute natural changes to specific actions or treatments, failing to recognize that events and situations frequently return to normal on their own without any real causal intervention.

Typically, hyperinflation begins because the authorities don't have enough money to respond to an unusual situation ― say, to pay for a war, or keep paying civil servants' salaries during a social and economic upheaval that makes it hard to collect enough taxes ― so they see no option but to print money and keep on printing. The trouble is that while governments can create money out of thin air, getting people to accept the money as payment for their services is another matter altogether. As the printing presses churn out more and more money with no end in sight, the amount of cash chasing any particular product on the shelf will rise and rise. So will prices, inevitably, and then a self-reinforcing spiral sets in: people naturally expect prices to increase further and further, so they demand ever-higher wages. Pretty soon, the situation is out of control. Not only do prices keep rising, but the rate at which they keep rising is also going up ― inflation accelerates. In principle, certainly, a similar "wage-price spiral" can take hold at moderate levels of inflation in an economy that hasn't just experienced a hugely stressful event such as a war or a revolution. But history shows that it doesn't tend to happen. Some wealthy countries experienced what looks like a wage-price spiral in the 1970s, in which a combination of oil price increases and relaxed monetary policy led to annual inflation in double digits, sometimes even more than 20 percent. But 20 percent annual inflation isn't 50 percent monthly inflation, which is the widely accepted official indicator of a state of hyperinflation in economics. It's not even close. And in the end, central banks did manage to prevent this spiral from turning into hyperinflation. * upheaval: 격변 ** churn out: 대량 생산하다 *** spiral: 악순환